Can management practices provide greenhouse gas abatement in grain farms in New South Wales, Australia?
Jeda Palmer A D , Peter J. Thorburn A , Elizabeth A. Meier A , Jody S. Biggs A , Brett Whelan B , Kanika Singh B and David N. Eyre C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A CSIRO, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia, Qld 4067, Australia.
B Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Biomedical Building, 1 Central Avenue, Australian Technology Park, Eveleigh, NSW 2015, Australia.
C NSW Farmers Association, Research, Development and Innovation Division, PO Box 459, St Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: jeda.palmer@csiro.au; jeda.palmer@uqconnect.edu.au
Crop and Pasture Science 68(4) 390-400 https://doi.org/10.1071/CP17026
Submitted: 18 January 2017 Accepted: 22 March 2017 Published: 8 May 2017
Abstract
Greenhouse gas abatement in the agricultural cropping industry can be achieved by employing management practices that sequester soil carbon (C) or minimise nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soils. However, C sequestration stimulates N2O emissions, making the net greenhouse-gas abatement potential of management practices difficult to predict. We studied land-management practices that have potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions by increasing soil C storage and/or decreasing soil N2O emissions for a diverse range of broadacre grain cropping sites in New South Wales. Carbon sequestration and N2O emissions were simulated with the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) for a baseline crop-management scenario and alternative scenarios representing management practices for greenhouse gas abatement, for 15 rainfed or irrigated sites. The global warming potential of the scenarios was quantified at 25 and 100 years after commencement of the alternative practices. Soil C and N2O emissions were predicted to increase with the use of practices that increased organic matter additions to the soil (e.g. adding a summer crop to the rotation). However, in only a few cases did the increase in soil C storage counter the N2O emissions sufficiently to provide net greenhouse gas abatement. For rainfed sites, inclusion of a summer crop and/or a pasture in the rotation was predicted to provide greenhouse gas abatement after 25 years, whereas after 100 years, only practices that included a summer crop provided abatement for some sites. For irrigated sites after 25 years, practices that reduced N fertiliser rate while retaining stubble were predicted to provide small abatement, and practices that included a summer crop provided abatement for some sites. After 100 years, practices likely to provide abatement included those that reduced N2O emissions, such as reducing N fertiliser rate. These findings suggest that a few management practices are likely to abate greenhouse gas emissions across New South Wales grain production sites and that these practices differ for irrigated and rainfed sites.
Additional keywords: carbon dioxide equivalent CO2e, global warming potential, soil organic carbon.
References
ABS (2015) 4618.0—Water Use on Australian Farms, 2014–15. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Available at: www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02014-15?OpenDocument (accessed 9 May 2016).ABS (2016) 7121.0—Agricultural Commodities, Australia, 2014–15: Broadacre crops. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Available at: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/7121.0Main%20Features32014-15?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=7121.0&issue=2014-15&num=&view (accessed 9 May 2016).
Armstrong RD, Kuskopf BJ, Millar G, Whitbread AM, Standley J (1999) Changes in soil chemical and physical properties following legumes and opportunity cropping on a cracking clay soil. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39, 445–456.
| Changes in soil chemical and physical properties following legumes and opportunity cropping on a cracking clay soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
ASRIS (2014) Maps. Australian Soil Resource Information System. Available at: www.asris.csiro.au/index.html# (accessed 9 May 2016).
Barton L, Hoyle FC, Stefanova KT, Murphy D (2016) Incorporating organic matter alters soil greenhouse gas emissions and increases grain yield in a semi-arid climate. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 231, 320–330.
| Incorporating organic matter alters soil greenhouse gas emissions and increases grain yield in a semi-arid climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlSgsLjL&md5=efdd8e173f52aee3409e5cb5e82aa34dCAS |
BOM (2017) Climate data online. Bureau of Meteorology, Australian Government. Available at: www.bom.gov.au/climate/data (accessed 13 January 2017).
Bouwman AF (1996) Direct emission of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 46, 53–70.
| Direct emission of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXotlCiuw%3D%3D&md5=608efd7953433cf2d4940f19fbca1a1cCAS |
Brock PM, Muir S, Herridge DF, Simmons A (2016) Cradle-to-farmgate greenhouse gas emissions for 2-year wheat monoculture and break crop–wheat sequences in south-eastern Australia. Crop & Pasture Science 67, 812–822.
| Cradle-to-farmgate greenhouse gas emissions for 2-year wheat monoculture and break crop–wheat sequences in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlylsL7L&md5=e2ee420062a7501c59e2638b5377ba7cCAS |
Bünemann EK, Marschner P, Smernik RJ, Conyers M, McNeill AM (2008) Soil organic phosphorus and microbial community composition as affected by 26 years of different management strategies. Biology and Fertility of Soils 44, 717–726.
| Soil organic phosphorus and microbial community composition as affected by 26 years of different management strategies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cameron KC, Di HJ, Moir JL (2013) Nitrogen losses from the soil/plant system: a review. Annals of Applied Biology 162, 145–173.
| Nitrogen losses from the soil/plant system: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXntVagsr4%3D&md5=b88b79c41c24879e12027d618dffb249CAS |
Campbell GS (1985) ‘Soil physics with BASIC: Transport models for soil-plant systems.’ (Elsevier Science BV: Amsterdam)
Campbell CA, McConkey BG, Zentner RP, Selles F, Curtin D (1996) Long-term effects of tillage and crop rotations on soil organic C and total N in a clay soil in southwestern Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 76, 395–401.
| Long-term effects of tillage and crop rotations on soil organic C and total N in a clay soil in southwestern Saskatchewan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Carberry PS, Hochman Z, Hunt JR, Dalgliesh NP, McCown RL, Whish JPM, Robertson MJ, Foale MA, Poulton PL, Van Rees H (2009) Re-inventing model-based decision support with Australian dryland farmers. 3. Relevance of APSIM to commercial crops. Crop & Pasture Science 60, 1044–1056.
| Re-inventing model-based decision support with Australian dryland farmers. 3. Relevance of APSIM to commercial crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cavanagh PP, Koppi AJ, McBratney AB (1991) The effects of minimum cultivation after three years on some physical and chemical properties of a red-brown earth at Forbes, N.S.W. Australian Journal of Soil Research 29, 263–270.
Dalal RC, Strong WM, Weston EJ, Cooper JE, Lehane KJ, King AJ, Chicken CJ (1995) Sustaining productivity of a Vertisol at Warra, Queensland, with fertilisers, no-till or legumes. 1. Organic matter status. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 35, 903–913.
| Sustaining productivity of a Vertisol at Warra, Queensland, with fertilisers, no-till or legumes. 1. Organic matter status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xhs1yiu7c%3D&md5=2510e25dab372135f28658821703f5a0CAS |
De Antoni Migliorati M, Bell M, Grace PR, Scheer C, Rowlings DW, Liu S (2015) Legume pastures can reduce N2O emissions intensity in subtropical cereal cropping systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 204, 27–39.
| Legume pastures can reduce N2O emissions intensity in subtropical cereal cropping systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXjtFegsL4%3D&md5=5e476623b456a15851a51dc0384593d4CAS |
Department of Agriculture (2013) ‘Australian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate. Key findings of the Climate Change Research Program.’ (Department of Agriculture, Australian Government: Canberra, ACT) Available at: www.agriculture.gov.au/Style%20Library/Images/DAFF/__data/assets/pdffile/0006/2359815/reducing-emissons-adapting-changing-climate.pdf
Department of the Environment and Energy (2014a) ‘National Inventory Report 2012. Volume 1.’ The Australian Government submission to the United Nations Framework Convention on climate change. Department of Environment and Energy, Australian Government: Canberra, ACT) Available at: www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-measurement/publications/national-inventory-report-2012 (accessed 11 April 2017)
Department of the Environment and Energy (2014b) The emissions reduction fund: Storing Carbon. Department of Environment and Energy, Australian Government. Available at: www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/emissions-reduction-fund/publications/factsheet-emissions-reduction-fund-storing-carbon (accessed 11 April 2017)
Dobbie K, Smith K (2003) Nitrous oxide emission factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables. Global Change Biology 9, 204–218.
| Nitrous oxide emission factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eurostat (2015) Agriculture—greenhouse gas emission statistics. Eurostat. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Agriculture_-_greenhouse_gas_emission_statistics#Further_Eurostat_information (accessed 24 May 2016)
Follett RF (2001) Soil management concepts and carbon sequestration in cropland soils. Soil & Tillage Research 61, 77–92.
| Soil management concepts and carbon sequestration in cropland soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Godde CM, Thorburn PJ, Biggs JS, Meier EA (2016) Understanding the impacts of soil, climate, and farming practices on soil organic carbon sequestration: a simulation study in Australia. Frontiers in Plant Science 7, 1–15.
| Understanding the impacts of soil, climate, and farming practices on soil organic carbon sequestration: a simulation study in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grace PR, Antle J, Ogle S, Paustian K, Basso B (2010) Soil carbon sequestration and associated economic costs for farming systems of south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 48, 720–729.
| Soil carbon sequestration and associated economic costs for farming systems of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holzworth DP, Huth NI, deVoil PG, Zurcher EJ, Herrmann NI, McLean G, Chenu K, van Oosterom EJ, Snow V, Murphy C, Moore AD, Brown H, Whish JPM, Verrall S, Fainges J, Bell LW, Peake AS, Poulton PL, Hochman Z, Thorburn PJ, Gaydon DS, Dalgliesh NP, Rodriguez D, Cox H, Chapman S, Doherty A, Teixeira E, Sharp J, Cichota R, Vogeler I, Li FY, Wang E, Hammer GL, Robertson MJ, Dimes JP, Whitbread AM, Hunt J, van Rees H, McClelland T, Carberry PS, Hargreaves JNG, MacLeod N, McDonald C, Harsdorf J, Wedgwood S, Keating BA (2014) APSIM—Evolution towards a new generation of agricultural systems simulation. Environmental Modelling & Software 62, 327–350.
| APSIM—Evolution towards a new generation of agricultural systems simulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hoyle FC, Murphy DV (2006) Seasonal changes in microbial function and diversity associated with stubble retention versus burning. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 407–423.
| Seasonal changes in microbial function and diversity associated with stubble retention versus burning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hulugalle NR, Weaver TB, Finlay LA, Hare J, Entwistle PC (2007) Soil properties and crop yields in a dryland Vertisol sown with cotton-based crop rotations. Soil & Tillage Research 93, 356–369.
| Soil properties and crop yields in a dryland Vertisol sown with cotton-based crop rotations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hutchinson JJ, Campbell CA, Desjardins RL (2007) Some perspectives on carbon sequestration in agriculture. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 142, 288–302.
| Some perspectives on carbon sequestration in agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
IPCC (2013) Summary for policy makers. In ‘Climate change 2013: The physical science basis’. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Eds TF Stocker, D Qin, G-K Plattner, M Tignor, SK Allen, J Boschung, A Nauels, Y Xia, V Bex, PM Midgley) (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
IPCC (2014) ‘Climate change 2014: Synthesis report.’ Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Eds RK Pachauri, LA Meyer) (IPCC: Geneva) Available at: www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf
Jeffrey SJ, Carter JO, Moodie KB, Beswick AR (2001) Using spatial interpolation to construct a comprehensive archive of Australian climate data. Environmental Modelling & Software 16, 309–330.
| Using spatial interpolation to construct a comprehensive archive of Australian climate data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson JMF, Franzluebbers AJ, Weyers SL, Reicosky DC (2007) Agricultural opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental Pollution 150, 107–124.
| Agricultural opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtF2mt7rJ&md5=4e0ca4404503cb05220301a7923b8e2aCAS |
Kragt ME, Pannell DJ, Robertson MJ, Thamo T (2012) Assessing costs of soil carbon sequestration by crop-livestock farmers in Western Australia. Agricultural Systems 112, 27–37.
| Assessing costs of soil carbon sequestration by crop-livestock farmers in Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kroeze C, Mosier A, Bouwman L (1999) Closing the global N2O budget: A retrospective analysis 1500–1994. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13, 1–8.
| Closing the global N2O budget: A retrospective analysis 1500–1994.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhs12kt70%3D&md5=7578b0ad8a3331b5d43dd73812e0c8b0CAS |
Lal R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change. Geoderma 123, 1–22.
| Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXoslSmsLY%3D&md5=a2182c6f3e09074d749056db7e484ec5CAS |
Lam SK, Chen D, Mosier AR, Roush R (2013) The potential for carbon sequestration in Australian agricultural soils is technically and economically limited. Scientific Reports 3, 1–6.
| The potential for carbon sequestration in Australian agricultural soils is technically and economically limited.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lawes RA, Robertson MJ (2012) Effect of subtropical perennial grass pastures on nutrients and carbon in coarse-textured soils in a Mediterranean climate. Soil Research 50, 551–561.
| Effect of subtropical perennial grass pastures on nutrients and carbon in coarse-textured soils in a Mediterranean climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xhs12jsrjN&md5=d06ef7e5e99185e9265bf50b5f169194CAS |
Li C, Frolking S, Butterbach-Bahl K (2005) Carbon sequestration in arable soils is likely to increase nitrous oxide emissions, offsetting reductions in climate radiative forcing. Climatic Change 72, 321–338.
| Carbon sequestration in arable soils is likely to increase nitrous oxide emissions, offsetting reductions in climate radiative forcing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtFKmsLvP&md5=3ab87e4a47067eec7255a776f8fbb263CAS |
Liebig MA, Morgan JA, Reeder JD, Ellert BH, Gollany HT, Schuman GE (2005) Greenhouse gas contributions and mitigation potential of agricultural practices in northwestern USA and western Canada. Soil & Tillage Research 83, 25–52.
| Greenhouse gas contributions and mitigation potential of agricultural practices in northwestern USA and western Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liu DL, O’Leary GJ, Ma Y, Cowie A, Li FY, McCaskill M, Conyers M, Dalal R, Robertson F, Dougherty W (2016) Modelling soil organic carbon 2. Changes under a range of cropping and grazing farming systems in eastern Australia. Geoderma 265, 164–175.
| Modelling soil organic carbon 2. Changes under a range of cropping and grazing farming systems in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhvF2nu7jP&md5=b864a294a4ed4270eb2f3fb17501a7f0CAS |
Luo Z, Wang E, Sun OJ (2010) Soil carbon change and its responses to agricultural practices in Australian agro-ecosystems: A review and synthesis. Geoderma 155, 211–223.
| Soil carbon change and its responses to agricultural practices in Australian agro-ecosystems: A review and synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXitlWgtb0%3D&md5=5747551517865c218214ddeecdd5d183CAS |
Luo Z, Wang E, Sun OJ, Smith CJ, Probert ME (2011) Modeling long-term soil carbon dynamics and sequestration potential in semi-arid agro-ecosystems. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 151, 1529–1544.
| Modeling long-term soil carbon dynamics and sequestration potential in semi-arid agro-ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Malinda DK (1995) Factors in conservation farming that reduce erosion. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 35, 969–978.
| Factors in conservation farming that reduce erosion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mason MG (1992) Effect of management of previous cereal stubble on nitrogen fertiliser requirement of wheat. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 32, 355–362.
| Effect of management of previous cereal stubble on nitrogen fertiliser requirement of wheat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXlvVOksA%3D%3D&md5=f1a1530bece117a34b83f3e9a4f053aaCAS |
Mathews P, McCaffery D, Jenkins L (2014) ‘Winter crop variety sowing guide 2014.’ (NSW Department of Primary Industries: Sydney)
Meier EA, Thorburn PJ, Kragt ME, Dumbrell NP, Biggs JS, Hoyle FC, van Rees H (2017) Greenhouse gas abatement on southern Australian grains farms: biophysical potential and financial impacts. Agricultural Systems , in press.
Mielenz H, Thorburn PJ, Harris RH, Officer SJ, Li G, Schwenke G, Grace P (2016a) Nitrous oxide emissions from grain production systems across a wide range of environmental conditions in eastern Australia. Soil Research 54, 659–674.
| Nitrous oxide emissions from grain production systems across a wide range of environmental conditions in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlejtL7F&md5=aac8ca61a9e686bbc3d0b785495e0affCAS |
Mielenz H, Thorburn PJ, Scheer C, De Antoni Migliorati M, Grace PR, Bell MJ (2016b) Opportunities for mitigating nitrous oxide emissions in subtropical cereal and fiber cropping systems: A simulation study. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 218, 11–27.
| Opportunities for mitigating nitrous oxide emissions in subtropical cereal and fiber cropping systems: A simulation study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhvVyrsLrM&md5=a1feac96c1e7a775178b88b44ad573b8CAS |
Mielenz H, Thorburn PJ, Harris RH, Grace PR, Officer SJ (2017) Mitigating N2O emissions from cropping systems after conversion from pasture—a modelling approach. European Journal of Agronomy 82, 254–267.
| Mitigating N2O emissions from cropping systems after conversion from pasture—a modelling approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtFenurbJ&md5=690533799154d154a5b5d737701e4d1cCAS |
Moore N, Serafin L, Jenkins L (2014) ‘Summer crop production guide 2014.’ (NSW Department of Primary Industries: Sydney) Available at: www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre/guides/summer-crop-production-guide.
Mosier AR, Hutchinson GL (1981) Nitrous oxide emissions from cropped fields. Journal of Environmental Quality 10, 169–173.
| Nitrous oxide emissions from cropped fields.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL3MXltVagsL0%3D&md5=960dc11d965727544c5bd4c44205a4aeCAS |
Nash JE, Sutcliffe JV (1970) River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I—A discussion of principles. Journal of Hydrology 10, 282–290.
| River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I—A discussion of principles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Leary GJ, Liu DL, Ma Y, Li FY, McCaskill M, Conyers M, Dalal R, Reeves S, Page K, Dang YP, Robertson F (2016) Modelling soil organic carbon 1. Performance of APSIM crop and pasture modules against long-term experimental data. Geoderma 264, 227–237.
| Modelling soil organic carbon 1. Performance of APSIM crop and pasture modules against long-term experimental data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhvVeqtr7M&md5=d574ee4a39819c014095107466005f83CAS |
Packer IJ, Hamilton GJ (1993) Soil physical and chemical changes due to tillage and their implications for erosion and productivity. Soil & Tillage Research 27, 327–339.
| Soil physical and chemical changes due to tillage and their implications for erosion and productivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peake AS, Huth NI, Carberry PS, Raine SR, Smith RJ (2014) Quantifying potential yield and lodging-related yield gaps for irrigated spring wheat in sub-tropical Australia. Field Crops Research 158, 1–14.
| Quantifying potential yield and lodging-related yield gaps for irrigated spring wheat in sub-tropical Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Probert ME, Dimes JP, Keating BA, Dalal RC, Strong WM (1998) APSIM’s water and nitrogen modules and simulation of the dynamics of water and nitrogen in fallow systems. Agricultural Systems 56, 1–28.
| APSIM’s water and nitrogen modules and simulation of the dynamics of water and nitrogen in fallow systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rees RM, Baddeley JA, Bhogal A, Ball BC, Chadwick DR, Macleod M, Lilly A, Pappa VA, Thorman RE, Watson CA, Williams JR (2013) Nitrous oxide mitigation in UK agriculture. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 59, 3–15.
| Nitrous oxide mitigation in UK agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXis1Orsb0%3D&md5=e648a4ffa9b4c2aabc6b48f8a3028bbaCAS |
Scott BJ, Eberbach PL, Evans J, Wade LJ (2010) ‘Stubble retention in cropping systems in southern Australia: benefits and challenges.’ (Industry and Investment NSW: Orange, NSW) Available at: www.csu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/922723/stubble-retention.pdf
Singh K, Whelan B, Eyre D (2014) Baseline soil carbon survey across agricultural management regimes and bioregions in NSW: preliminary results. In ‘Securing Australia’s soils—for profitable industries and healthy landscapes. Proceedings National Soil Science Conference’. Melbourne. (Soil Science Society of Australia Inc.) Available at: www.soilscience2014.com/proceedings/Singh.pdf
Smith P, Martino D, Cai Z, Gwary D, Janzen H, Kumar P, McCarl B, Ogle S, O’Mara F, Rice C (2007) Policy and technological constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 118, 6–28.
| Policy and technological constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith P, Martino D, Cai Z, Gwary D, Janzen H, Kumar P, McCarl B, Ogle S, O’Mara F, Rice C, Scholes B, Sirotenko O, Howden M, McAllister T, Pan G, Romanenkov V, Schneider U, Towprayoon S, Wattenbach M, Smith J (2008) Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 363, 789–813.
| Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXislGgtb8%3D&md5=c04443cde639b4ccb0849ea34c8d2c85CAS |
Thorburn PJ, Probert ME, Robertson FA (2001) Modelling decomposition of sugar cane surface residues with APSIM-residue. Field Crops Research 70, 223–232.
| Modelling decomposition of sugar cane surface residues with APSIM-residue.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thorburn PJ, Robertson MJ, Clothier BE, Snow VO, Charmley E, Sanderman J, Teixeira E, Dynes RA, Hall A, Brown H, Howden SM, Battaglia M (2012) Australia and New Zealand perspectives on climate change and agriculture. In ‘Handbook of climate change and agroecosystems, global and regional aspects and implications’. (Eds C Rosenzweig, D Hillel) pp. 107–141. (Imperial College Press: London)
US EPA (2015) United States Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report: 1990–2013. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Available at: www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/usinventoryreport.html (accessed 24 May 2016)
Whelan B, Singh K, Thorburn P, Palmer J, Meier E, Eyre D (2015) ‘Soil carbon storage and greenhouse gas abatement in commercial cropping systems.’ (NSW Farmers Association, CSIRO, The University of Sydney) Available at: www.nswfarmers.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/47584/Soil-Carbon-Storage-and-Greenhouse-Gas-Abatement-vsml.pdf
Willmott CJ (1982) Some comments on the evaluation of model performance. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 63, 1309–1313.
| Some comments on the evaluation of model performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Winsor GW (1958) Mineralisation and immobilisation of nitrogen in soil. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 9, 792–801.
| Mineralisation and immobilisation of nitrogen in soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaG1MXjtVOmsA%3D%3D&md5=b98c245fd26e6e5f2477e61834961487CAS |
