Register      Login
Australian Systematic Botany Australian Systematic Botany Society
Taxonomy, biogeography and evolution of plants
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Biogeographical regionalisation of the world: a reappraisal

Juan J. Morrone
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

Museo de Zoología ‘Alfonso L. Herrera’, Departamento de Biología Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-399, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico. Email: juanmorrone2001@yahoo.com.mx

Australian Systematic Botany 28(3) 81-90 https://doi.org/10.1071/SB14042
Submitted: 3 November 2014  Accepted: 16 March 2015   Published: 13 November 2015

Abstract

Some phytogeographical, zoogeographical and biogeographical regionalisations of the world are reviewed qualitatively. A biogeographical regionalisation attempting some consensus is proposed, recognising the following three kingdoms and nine regions: Holarctic kingdom (Nearctic and Palearctic regions), Holotropical kingdom (Neotropical, Ethiopian and Oriental regions) and Austral kingdom (Cape, Andean, Australian and Antarctic regions). Additionally, the following five transition zones are recognised: Mexican (Nearctic–Neotropical transition), Saharo-Arabian (Palearctic–Ethiopian transition), Chinese (Palearctic–Oriental transition), Indo-Malayan (Oriental–Australian transition) and South American (Neotropical–Andean transition).


References

Allen JA (1892) The geographical distribution of North American mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 4, 199–243.

Amorim DS, Tozoni SHS (1994) Phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of the Anisopodoidea (Diptera, Bibionomorpha), with an area cladogram for intercontinental relationships. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 38, 517–543.

Amorim DS, Santos CMD, de Oliveira SS (2009) Allochronic taxa as an alternative model to explain circumantarctic distributions. Systematic Entomology 34, 2–9.
Allochronic taxa as an alternative model to explain circumantarctic distributions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bartholomew JG, Clark WE, Grimshaw PH (1911) ‘Atlas of Zoogeography: A Series of Maps Illustrating the Distribution of over Seven Hundred Families, Genera, and Species of Existing Animals.’ (Edinburgh Geographical Institute: Edinburgh, UK)

Born J, Linder HP, Desmet P (2007) The Greater Cape floristic region. Journal of Biogeography 34, 147–162.
The Greater Cape floristic region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Boyer SL, Clouse RM, Benavides LR, Sharma P, Schwendinger PJ, Karunarathna I, Giribet G (2007) Biogeography of the world: a case study from cyphophthalmid Opiliones, a globally distributed group of arachnids. Journal of Biogeography 34, 2070–2085.
Biogeography of the world: a case study from cyphophthalmid Opiliones, a globally distributed group of arachnids.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cabrera AL, Willink A (1973) ‘Biogeografía de América Latina.’ Monografía 13, Serie de Biología. (OEA: Washington, DC)

Cox CB (2001) The biogeographic regions reconsidered. Journal of Biogeography 28, 511–523.
The biogeographic regions reconsidered.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Craw RC, Page R (1988) Panbiogeography: method and metaphor in the new biogeography. In ‘Evolutionary Processes and Metaphors’. (Eds MW Ho, SW Fox) pp. 163–189. (Wiley: Chichester, UK)

Crisci JV, Cigliano MM, Morrone JJ, Roig-Juñent S (1991) Historical biogeography of southern South America. Systematic Zoology 40, 152–171.
Historical biogeography of southern South America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Crisci JV, de la Fuente MS, Lanteri AA, Morrone JJ, Ortiz Jaureguizar E, Pascual R, Prado JL (1993) Patagonia, Gondwana Occidental (GW) y Oriental (GE), un modelo de biogeografía histórica. Ameghiniana 30, 104

Darlington PJ Jr (1957) ‘Zoogeography: the geographical distribution of animals.’ (Wiley: New York)

de Candolle AP (1820) Géographie botanique. In ‘Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles’. (Ed. FG Levrault) pp. 359–422. (Imprimeur du Roi: Strasbourg)

de Mello-Leitão C (1937) ‘Zoo-geografia do Brasil.’ (Biblioteca Pedagógica Brasileira, Brasiliana: São Paulo, Brazil)

Diels L (1908) ‘Pflanzengeographie.’ (Göschensche Verlagshandlung: Leipzig, Germany)

Drude O (1884) ‘Die Florenreiche der Erde: Darstellung der gegenwärtigen Verbreitung Verhältnisse der Pflanzen: Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Erdkunde.’ (Petermanns Mitteilungen, Justus Perthes: Gotha, Germany)

Ebach MC, Morrone JJ, Parenti LR, Viloria ÁL (2008) International code of area nomenclature. Journal of Biogeography 35, 1153–1157.
International code of area nomenclature.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ebach MC, Gill AC, Kwan A, Ahyong ST, Murphy DJ, Cassis G (2013) Towards an Australian bioregionalisation atlas: a provisional area taxonomy of Australia’s biogeographical regions. Zootaxa 3619, 315–342.
Towards an Australian bioregionalisation atlas: a provisional area taxonomy of Australia’s biogeographical regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26131478PubMed |

Ebach MC, Murphy DJ, González-Orozco CE, Miller JT (2015) A revised area taxonomy of phytogeographical regions within the Australian bioregionalisation atlas. Phytotaxa 208, 261–277.
A revised area taxonomy of phytogeographical regions within the Australian bioregionalisation atlas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Engler A (1879) ‘Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, insbesondere der Florengebiete seit der Tertiärperiode. Vol 1. Die Extratropischen Gebiete der Nördlichen Hemisphäre.’ (Verlag von W. Engelmann: Leipzig, Germany)

Engler A (1882) ‘Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt, insbesondere der Florengebiete seit der Tertiärperiode. Vol. 2. Die extratropischen Gebiete der Südlichen Hemisphäre und die tropischen Gebiete.’ (Verlag von W. Engelmann: Leipzig, Germany)

Engler A (1899) ‘Die Entwicklung der Pflanzengeographie in den letzten hundert Jahren und weitere Aufgaben derselben: Wissenschaftliche Beiträge zum Gedächtnis der hundertjährigen Wiederkehr des Antritts von Alexander von Humboldt’s Reise nach Amerika.’ (Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin: Berlin)

Escalante T (2009) Un ensayo sobre regionalización biogeográfica. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad 80, 551–560.

Escalante T, Rodríguez-Tapia G, Szumik C, Morrone JJ, Rivas M (2010) Delimitation of the Nearctic region according to mammalian distributional patterns. Journal of Mammalogy 91, 1381–1388.
Delimitation of the Nearctic region according to mammalian distributional patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Escalante T, Morrone JJ, Rodríguez-Tapia G (2013) Biogeographic regions of North American mammals based on endemism. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London 110, 485–499.
Biogeographic regions of North American mammals based on endemism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ferro I, Morrone JJ (2014) Biogeographic transition zones: a search for conceptual synthesis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London 113, 1–12.
Biogeographic transition zones: a search for conceptual synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fleming CA (1987) Comments on Udvardy’s biogeographical realm Antarctica. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 17, 195–200.
Comments on Udvardy’s biogeographical realm Antarctica.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Galley C, Linder HP (2006) Geographical affinities of the Cape flora, South Africa. Journal of Biogeography 33, 236–250.
Geographical affinities of the Cape flora, South Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Galley C, Bytebier B, Bellstedt DU, Linder HP (2007) The Cape element in the afrotemperate flora: from Cape to Cairo? Proceedings. Biological Sciences 274, 535–543.
The Cape element in the afrotemperate flora: from Cape to Cairo?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjtF2itrw%3D&md5=5a81e6e4414a86965b951fc7726e8f75CAS |

Giribet G, Edgecombe GD (2006) The importance of looking at small-scale patterns when inferring Gondwanan biogeography: a case study of the centipede Paralamyctes (Chilopoda, Lithobiomorpha, Henicopidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London 89, 65–78.
The importance of looking at small-scale patterns when inferring Gondwanan biogeography: a case study of the centipede Paralamyctes (Chilopoda, Lithobiomorpha, Henicopidae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Glasby CJ (2005) Polychaete distribution patterns revisited: an historical explanation. Marine Ecology 26, 235–245.
Polychaete distribution patterns revisited: an historical explanation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Goloboff P (2011) NDM/VNDM programs for identification of areas of endemism, Version 3.0. Available at http://www.lillo.org.ar/phylogeny/ [Verified 1 March 2015]

González-Orozco CE, Ebach MC, Laffan S, Thornhill AH, Knerr NJ, Schmidt-Lebuhn AN, Cargill CC, Clements M, Nagalingum NS, Mishler BD, Miller JT (2014) Quantifying phytogeographical regions of Australia using geospatial turnover in species composition. PLoS One 9, e92558
Quantifying phytogeographical regions of Australia using geospatial turnover in species composition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24658356PubMed |

Good R (1947) ‘The Geography of the Flowering Plants.’ (Longman: London)

Grisebach A (1872) ‘Die Vegetation der Erde nach ihrer klimatischen Anordnung: ein Abriss der vergleichenden Geographie der Pflanzen.’ (Engelmann Verlag: Leipzig, Germany)

Halffter G (1964) La entomofauna americana, ideas acerca de su origen y distribución. Folia Entomologica Mexicana 6, 1–108.

Halffter G (1974) Eléments anciens de l’entomofaune neotropicale: ses implications biogéographiques. Quaestiones Entomologicae 10, 223–262.

Halffter G (1976) Distribución de los insectos en la Zona de Transición Mexicana: relaciones con la entomofauna de Norteamérica. Folia Entomologica Mexicana 35, 1–64.

Halffter G (1978) Un nuevo patrón de dispersión en la zona de transición mexicana: el mesoamericano de montaña. Folia Entomologica Mexicana 39–40, 219–222.

Halffter G (1987) Biogeography of the montane entomofauna of Mexico and Central America. Annual Review of Entomology 32, 95–114.
Biogeography of the montane entomofauna of Mexico and Central America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heilprin A (1887) ‘The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals.’ (International Scientific Series: London)

Holt BG, Lessard JP, Borregaard MK, Fritz SA, Araújo MB, Dimitrov D, Fabre PH, Graham CH, Graves GR, Jønsson KA, Nogués-Bravo D, Wang Z, Whittaker RJ, Fjeldså RJ, Rahbek C (2013a) An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world. Science 339, 74–78.
An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXnt1Ol&md5=f7eda757fae504bfdb95e7f059c803d4CAS | 23258408PubMed |

Holt BG, Lessard JP, Borregaard MK, Fritz SA, Araújo MB, Dimitrov D, Fabre PH, Graham CH, Graves GR, Jønsson KA, Nogués-Bravo D, Wang Z, Whittaker RJ, Fjeldså RJ, Rahbek C (2013b) Response to comment on ‘An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world’. Science 341, 343
Response to comment on ‘An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhtFClsLbM&md5=ff651afbaf9e6e172e1da024b822ad31CAS | 23888024PubMed |

Humphries CJ, Parenti LR (1999) ‘Cladistic Biogeography. Second Edition: Interpreting Patterns of Plant and Animal Distributions.’ (Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK)

Huxley TH (1868) On the classification and distribution of Alectoromorphae and Heteromorphae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1868, 294–319.

Kirby WF (1872) On the geographical distribution of the diurnal Lepidoptera as compared with that of birds. Journal of the Linnean Society of London 11, 431–439.
On the geographical distribution of the diurnal Lepidoptera as compared with that of birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kreft H, Jetz W (2010) A framework for delineating biogeographical regions based on species distributions. Journal of Biogeography 37, 2029–2053.
A framework for delineating biogeographical regions based on species distributions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kreft H, Jetz W (2013) Comment on ‘An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world’. Science 341, 343
Comment on ‘An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhtFClsLnL&md5=ad0a3cbcb06cb83a6f3f23e328d82dfdCAS | 23888023PubMed |

Krivokhatsky VA, Ovtshinnikova OG (2012) Provinciality as the main principle in biogeographic regionalization. Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie 90, 861–866.

Kuschel G (1964) Problems concerning an Austral region. In ‘Pacific Basin Biogeography: a Symposium’, 21 August–6 September 1963. (Eds JL Gressitt, CH Lindroth, FR Fosberg, CA Fleming, EG Turbott) pp. 443–449. (Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, HI)

Lydekker BA (1896) ‘A Geographical History of Mammals.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)

Mattick F (1964) Übersicht über die Florenreiche und Florengebiete der Erde. A. In ‘Engler’s Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien. 12 ed. vol. 2. Angiospermen’. (Ed. H Melchior) pp. 626–629 (Gerbrüder Borntraeger: Berlin)

Morain SA (1984) ‘Systematic and regional biogeography.’ (Van Nostrand Reinhold Company: New York)

Moreira-Muñoz A (2007) The Austral floristic realm revisited. Journal of Biogeography 34, 1649–1660.
The Austral floristic realm revisited.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morrone JJ (1996) The biogeographical Andean subregion: a proposal exemplified by arthropod taxa (Arachnida, Crustacea, and Hexapoda). Neotrópica 42, 103–114.

Morrone JJ (1998) On Udvardy’s Insulantarctica province: a test from the weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Journal of Biogeography 25, 947–955.
On Udvardy’s Insulantarctica province: a test from the weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morrone JJ (2002) Biogeographic regions under track and cladistic scrutiny. Journal of Biogeography 29, 149–152.
Biogeographic regions under track and cladistic scrutiny.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morrone JJ (2004) La zona de transición Sudamericana: caracterización y relevancia evolutiva. Acta Entomológica Chilena 28, 41–50.

Morrone JJ (2006) Biogeographic areas and transition zones of Latin America and the Caribbean Islands based on panbiogeographic and cladistic analyses of the entomofauna. Annual Review of Entomology 51, 467–494.
Biogeographic areas and transition zones of Latin America and the Caribbean Islands based on panbiogeographic and cladistic analyses of the entomofauna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XptlCmtA%3D%3D&md5=b912218bdde5c7f82e79faefb7dc5aecCAS | 16332220PubMed |

Morrone JJ (2008) Endemism. In ‘Encyclopedia of Ecology’. (Eds SE Jorgensen, BD Fath) pp. 1254–1259. (Elsevier: Oxford, UK)

Morrone JJ (2009) ‘Evolutionary Biogeography: An Integrative Approach with Case Studies.’ (Columbia University Press: New York)

Morrone JJ (2014) Biogeographical regionalisation of the Neotropical region. Zootaxa 3782, 1–110.
Biogeographical regionalisation of the Neotropical region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24871951PubMed |

Morrone JJ (2015a) Biogeographical regionalisation of the Andean region. Zootaxa 3936, 207–236.
Biogeographical regionalisation of the Andean region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25947431PubMed |

Morrone JJ (2015b) Halffter’s Mexican transition zone (1962–2014), cenocrons and evolutionary biogeography. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 53, 249–257.
Halffter’s Mexican transition zone (1962–2014), cenocrons and evolutionary biogeography.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Müller P (1986) ‘Biogeography.’ (Harper & Row: New York)

Murray A (1866) ‘The Geographical Distribution of Mammals.’ (Day and Son Ltd: London)

Newbigin MI (1950) ‘Plant and Animal Geography.’ (EP Dutton: New York)

Palestrini C, Zunino M (1986) L’analisi dell’entomofauna nelle zone di transizione: prospettive e problemi. Biogeographia 12, 11–25.

Palestrini C, Simonis A, Zunino M (1985) Modelli di distribuzione dell’entomofauna della zona di transizione Cinese, analisi di esempi e ipotesi sulle sue origini. Biogeographia 11, 195–209.

Parenti LR, Ebach MC (2009) ‘Comparative Biogeography: Discovering and Classifying Biogeographical Patterns of a Dynamic Earth.’ (University of California Press: Berkeley, CA)

Pielou EC (1979) ‘Biogeography.’ (Wiley: New York)

Pielou EC (1992) ‘Biogeography.’ (Krieger Publishing Company: Malabar, FL)

Poynton JC (2000) Evidence for an afrotemperate amphibian fauna. African Journal of Herpetology 49, 33–41.
Evidence for an afrotemperate amphibian fauna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Procheş Ş (2005) The world’s biogeographical regions: cluster analyses based on bat distributions. Journal of Biogeography 32, 607–614.
The world’s biogeographical regions: cluster analyses based on bat distributions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Procheş Ş, Ramdhani S (2012) The world’s zoogeographical regions confirmed by cross-taxon analyses. Bioscience 62, 260–270.
The world’s zoogeographical regions confirmed by cross-taxon analyses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rapoport EH (1968) Algunos problemas biogeográficos del Nuevo Mundo con especial referencia a la región Neotropical. In ‘Biologie de l’Amerique Australe. Vol. 4’. (Eds C Delamare Debouteville, EH Rapoport) pp. 55–110. (CNRS: Paris)

Ribeiro GC, Santos CMD, Olivieri LT, Santos D, Berbert JM, Eterovic A (2014) The world’s biogeographical regions revisited: global patterns of endemism in Tipulidae (Diptera). Zootaxa 3847, 241–258.
The world’s biogeographical regions revisited: global patterns of endemism in Tipulidae (Diptera).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25112336PubMed |

Riddle BR, Hafner DJ (2010) Integrating pattern with process at biogeographic boundaries: the legacy of Wallace. Ecography 33, 321–325.
Integrating pattern with process at biogeographic boundaries: the legacy of Wallace.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rueda M, Rodríguez MA, Hawkins BA (2013) Identifying global zoogeographical regions: lessons from Wallace. Journal of Biogeography 40, 2215–2225.
Identifying global zoogeographical regions: lessons from Wallace.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ruggiero A, Ezcurra C (2003) Regiones y transiciones biogeográficas: complementariedad de los análisis en biogeografía histórica y ecológica. In ‘Una perspectiva latinoamericana de la biogeografía’. (Eds JJ Morrone, J Llorente) pp. 141–154. (Las Prensas de Ciencias, UNAM: Mexico City)

Sanmartín I, Ronquist F (2004) Southern Hemisphere biogeography inferred by event-based models: plant versus animal patterns. Systematic Biology 53, 216–243.
Southern Hemisphere biogeography inferred by event-based models: plant versus animal patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15205050PubMed |

Sanmartín I, Enghoff H, Ronquist F (2001) Patterns of animal dispersal, vicariance and diversification in the Holarctic. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London 73, 345–390.
Patterns of animal dispersal, vicariance and diversification in the Holarctic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schmidt KP (1954) Faunal realms, regions, and provinces. The Quarterly Review of Biology 29, 322–331.
Faunal realms, regions, and provinces.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaG2M%2FkvFaltw%3D%3D&md5=786ad8b13068cb670fc08e158a418d23CAS | 13237405PubMed |

Schuh RT, Stonedahl GM (1986) Historical biogeography in the Indo-Pacific: a cladistic approach. Cladistics 2, 337–355.
Historical biogeography in the Indo-Pacific: a cladistic approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sclater PL (1858) On the general geographic distribution of the members of the class Aves. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology 2, 130–145.
On the general geographic distribution of the members of the class Aves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sclater WL (1894) The geography of mammals. I. Introductory. The Geographical Journal 3, 95–105.
The geography of mammals. I. Introductory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sclater WL, Sclater PL (1899) ‘The Geography of Mammals.’ (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Company: London)

Smith CH (1983) A system of world mammal faunal regions. I. Logical and statistical derivation of the regions. Journal of Biogeography 10, 455–466.
A system of world mammal faunal regions. I. Logical and statistical derivation of the regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stoddart DR (1992) Biogeography of the tropical Pacific. Pacific Science 46, 276–293.

Takhtajan A (1961) ‘The Origin of Angiospermous Plants’, 2nd edn. (Moscow) [In Russian. Translation: C Jeffrey (1969) ‘Flowering Plants, Origin and Dispersal.’ (Oliver and Boyd: Edinburgh, UK)]

Takhtajan A (1986) ‘Floristic Regions of the World.’ (University of California Press: Berkeley, CA)

Thorne RF (1964) Biotic distribution patterns in the tropical Pacific. In ‘Pacific Basin Biogeography: a Symposium’, 21 August–6 September 1963. (Eds JL Gressitt, CH Lindroth, FR Fosberg, CA Fleming, EG Turbott) pp. 311–350. (Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, HI)

Treviranus GR (1803) ‘Biologie, oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur. 2 volumes.’ (Röwer: Göttingen, Germany)

Udvardy MDF (1975) ‘A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the World’, Occasional Paper 18. (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources: Morges)

Udvardy MDF (1987) The biogeographical realm Antarctica: a proposal. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 17, 187–194.
The biogeographical realm Antarctica: a proposal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Urtubey E, Stuessy TF, Tremetsberger K, Morrone JJ (2010) The South American biogeographic transition zone: an analysis from Asteraceae. Taxon 59, 505–509.

Usinger RL (1964) Animal distribution patterns in the tropical Pacific. In ‘Pacific Basin Biogeography: a Symposium’, 21 August–6 September 1963. (Eds JL Gressitt, CH Lindroth, FR Fosberg, CA Fleming, EG Turbott) pp. 255–261. (Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, HI)

Van Rooy J, Van Wyk AE (2012) Phytogeographical and ecological affinities of the bryofloristic regions of southern Africa. Polish Botanical Journal 37, 109–118.

Verboom GA, Archibald JK, Bakker FT, Bellstedt DU, Conrad F, Dreyer LL, Forest F, Galley C, Goldblatt P, Henning JF, Mummenhoff K, Linder HP, Muasya AM, Oberlander KC, Savolainen V, Snijman DA, van der Niet T, Nowell TL (2009) Origin and diversification of the Greater Cape flora: ancient species repository, hot-bed of recent radiation, or both? Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 51, 44–53.
Origin and diversification of the Greater Cape flora: ancient species repository, hot-bed of recent radiation, or both?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18411064PubMed |

Vilhena DA, Antonelli A (2014) Beyond similarity: a network approach for identifying and delimiting biogeographical regions. Nature Communications 6, 1–9.

Wallace AR (1876) ‘The Geographical Distribution of Animals. Vol. I & II.’ (Harper and Brothers: New York)

Whittaker RJ, Riddle BR, Hawkins BA, Ladle RJ (2013) The geographical distribution of life and the problem of regionalization: 100 years after Alfred Russel Wallace. Journal of Biogeography 40, 2209–2214.
The geographical distribution of life and the problem of regionalization: 100 years after Alfred Russel Wallace.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |