Register      Login
International Journal of Wildland Fire International Journal of Wildland Fire Society
Journal of the International Association of Wildland Fire
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Comparison of three methods to quantify the fire spread rate in laboratory experiments

J. S. Gould A , A. L. Sullivan A B , R. Hurley A and V. Koul A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A CSIRO Land and Water, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.

B Corresponding author. Email: andrew.sullivan@csiro.au

International Journal of Wildland Fire 26(10) 877-883 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF17038
Submitted: 23 February 2017  Accepted: 14 July 2017   Published: 20 September 2017

Abstract

Different methods can be used to measure the time and distance of travel of a fire and thus its speed. The selection of a particular method will depend on the experimental objectives, design, scale, location (in the laboratory or field), required accuracy and resources available. In this study, measurements from ocular observation (directly by eye), visible spectrum video imagery and thermocouple instrumentation were used to compare their performance in quantifying the time of arrival and rate of spread of a fire burning across a eucalypt forest litter fuel bed in a combustion wind tunnel. All methods gave similar results, but there were some significant differences depending on the dryness of the fuel and speed of the wind.

Additional keywords: combustion wind tunnel, eucalyptus fuel, ocular observation, rate of spread, thermocouple, video imagery.


References

Anderson WR, Catchpole EA, Bulter BW (2010) Convective heat transfer in fire spread through fine fuel beds. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 284–298.
Convective heat transfer in fire spread through fine fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ballantyne A, Moss JB (1977) Fine wire thermocouple measurements of fluctuating temperature. Combustion Science and Technology 17, 63–72.
Fine wire thermocouple measurements of fluctuating temperature.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Blevins LG, Pitts WM (1999) Modelling bare and aspirated thermocouples in compartment fires. Fire Safety Journal 33, 239–259.
Modelling bare and aspirated thermocouples in compartment fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bova AS, Dickinson MB (2008) Beyond ‘fire temperature’: calibrating thermocouple probes and modelling their response to surface fires in hardwood fuels. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38, 1008–1020.
Beyond ‘fire temperature’: calibrating thermocouple probes and modelling their response to surface fires in hardwood fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brohez S, Delvosalle C, Marlair G (2004) A two-thermocouple probe for radiation corrections of measured temperature in compartment fires. Fire Safety Journal 39, 399–411.
A two-thermocouple probe for radiation corrections of measured temperature in compartment fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Butler BW, Cohen J, Latham DJ, Schuette RD, Sopko P, Shannon KS, Jimenez D, Bradshaw LS (2004) Measurements of radiant emissive power and temperatures in crown fires. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 1577–1587.
Measurements of radiant emissive power and temperatures in crown fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Catchpole EA, Catchpole WR, Rothermel RC (1993) Fire behaviour experiments in mixed fuel complexes. International Journal of Wildland Fire 3, 45–57.
Fire behaviour experiments in mixed fuel complexes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Catchpole WR, Catchpole EA, Butler BW, Rothermel RC, Morris GA, Latham DJ (1998) Rate of spread of free-burning fires in woody fuels in a wind tunnel. Combustion Science and Technology 131, 1–37.
Rate of spread of free-burning fires in woody fuels in a wind tunnel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjs1Ggsbo%3D&md5=66ac3b45fdc5617b834ea4ab199d47bfCAS |

Cruz MG, McCaw WL, Anderson WR, Gould JS (2013) Fire behaviour modelling in semi-arid mallee–heath shrublands of southern Australia. Environmental Modelling & Software 40, 21–34.
Fire behaviour modelling in semi-arid mallee–heath shrublands of southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dupuy JL, Marechal J, Morvan D (2003) Fires from a cylindrical forest fuel burner: combustion dynamics and flame properties. Combustion and Flame 135, 65–76.
Fires from a cylindrical forest fuel burner: combustion dynamics and flame properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXnvVSjsbk%3D&md5=6f8cbfed80f1d9dfb6a8e09b77aa557cCAS |

Finney MA, Cohen JD, Forthofer JM, McAllister SS, Gollner MJ, Gorhan DJ, Saito K, Akafuah NK, Adam BA, English JD (2015) Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, 9833–9838.
Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhtFOksbnM&md5=8f37984ea410392d7207a4af75035b77CAS |

Gill AM, Knight IK (1991) Fire measurements. In ‘Proceedings of conference on bushfire modelling and fire danger rating systems’, 11–12 July 1998, Canberra, ACT. (Eds NP Cheney and AM Gill) pp. 137–146. (CSIRO: Canberra, ACT, Australia)

Glawe GE, Holanda R, Krause LN (1978) Recovery and radiation corrections and time constants of several sizes of shielded and unshielded thermocouple probes for measuring gas temperature. (NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office, Lewis Research Centre: Cleveland, OH, USA)

Kennard DK, Outcalt KW, Jones D, O’Brien JJ (2005) Comparing techniques for estimating flame temperature of prescribed fries. Fire Ecology 1, 75–84.
Comparing techniques for estimating flame temperature of prescribed fries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lou M (1997) Effects of radiation on temperature measurements in a fire environment. Journal of Fire Sciences 15, 443–461.
Effects of radiation on temperature measurements in a fire environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marcelli T, Santoni PA, Simeoni A, Leoni E, Porterie B (2004) Fire spread across pine needle fuel beds: characterization of temperature and velocity distribution within the fire plume. International Journal of Wildland Fire 13, 37–48.
Fire spread across pine needle fuel beds: characterization of temperature and velocity distribution within the fire plume.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Matthews S (2010) Effects of drying temperature on fuel moisture content measurements. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 800–802.
Effects of drying temperature on fuel moisture content measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McAlpine RS, Wakimoto RH (1991) The acceleration of fire from point source to equilibrium spread. Forest Science 37, 1314–1337.

Mulvaney J, Sullivan A, Cary G, Bishop G (2016) Repeatability of free-burning fire experiments using heterogeneous forest fuel beds in a combustion wind tunnel. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 445–455.
Repeatability of free-burning fire experiments using heterogeneous forest fuel beds in a combustion wind tunnel.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pitts WM, Braun E, Peacock RD, Mitler HE, Johnson EL, Reneke PA, Blevins LG (2002) Temperature uncertainties for bare-bead and aspirated thermocouple measurements in fire environments. In ‘Thermal measurements: the foundation of fire standards, ASTMSPT 1427’. (Eds LA Grizo and NJ Alvares) 508–511. (ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA)

R Core Team (2014) A language and environment for statistical computing. (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria). Available at http://www.R-project.org/ [Verified 15 August 2017].

Rothermel RC, Anderson HE (1966) Fire spread characteristics determined in the laboratory. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper INT-30. (Ogden, UT, USA)

Santoni PA, Marcelli T, Leoni E (2002) Measurement of fluctuating temperature in a continuous flame spread across a fuel bed using a double thermocouple probe. Combustion and Flame 131, 47–58.
Measurement of fluctuating temperature in a continuous flame spread across a fuel bed using a double thermocouple probe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XosFamsLY%3D&md5=c2fe17c60c18e1dd45f174fae0a4362aCAS |

Shaddix CR (1999) Correcting thermocouple measurements for radiation loss: a critical review. In ‘Proceedings of the 33rd National Heat Transfer Conference’, 15–17 August 1999, Albuquerque, NM, USA. (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, USA)

Shannon KS, Butler BW (2003) A review of error associated with thermocouple temperature measurements in in fire environments. In ‘Proceedings of the 2nd International Wildland Fire Ecology and Fire Management Congress, 16–20 November 2003, Orlando, FL. (American Meteorological Society: Boston, MA, USA). Available at https://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/67056.pdf [Verified 15 August 2017]

Simard AJ, Blank RW, Hobria SL (1989) Measuring and interpreting flame height in wildland fires. Fire Technology 25, 114–133.
Measuring and interpreting flame height in wildland fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sullivan AL, Knight IK, Hurley RJ, Webber C (2013) A contractionless, low-turbulence wind tunnel for the study of free-burning fires. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 44, 264–274.
A contractionless, low-turbulence wind tunnel for the study of free-burning fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Taylor SW, Wotton BM, Alexander ME, Dalrymple GN (2004) Variation in wind and crown fire behaviour in a northern jack pine black spruce forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 1561–1576.
Variation in wind and crown fire behaviour in a northern jack pine black spruce forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Walker JD, Stocks BJ (1968) Thermocouple errors in forest fire research. Fire Technology 4, 59–62.
Thermocouple errors in forest fire research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Weise DR, Biging GS (1996) Effects of wind velocity and slope on flame properties. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26, 1849–1858.
Effects of wind velocity and slope on flame properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wolff MF, Carrier GF, Fendell FE (1991) Wind-aided fire spread across arrays of discrete fuel elements. II. Experiments. Combustion Science and Technology 77, 261–289.
Wind-aided fire spread across arrays of discrete fuel elements. II. Experiments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wotton BM, Gould JS, McCaw WL, Cheney NP, Taylor SW (2012) Flame temperature and residence time of fires in dry eucalyptus forest. International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, 270–281.
Flame temperature and residence time of fires in dry eucalyptus forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |