Towards a new paradigm in fire severity research using dose–response experiments
Alistair M. S. Smith A B F , Aaron M. Sparks A B , Crystal A. Kolden B , John T. Abatzoglou B , Alan F. Talhelm A , Daniel M. Johnson A , Luigi Boschetti A , James A. Lutz C , Kent G. Apostol A , Kara M. Yedinak A , Wade T. Tinkham D and Robert J. Kremens E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Fire Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA.
B Department of Geography, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA.
C Department of Wildland Resources, College of Natural Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84332, USA.
D Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
E Carlson Center for Imaging Science, Rochester institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, NY14623, USA.
F Corresponding author. Email: alistair@uidaho.edu
International Journal of Wildland Fire 25(2) 158-166 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF15130
Submitted: 22 July 2015 Accepted: 17 November 2015 Published: 14 January 2016
Abstract
Most landscape-scale fire severity research relies on correlations between field measures of fire effects and relatively simple spectral reflectance indices that are not direct measures of heat output or changes in plant physiology. Although many authors have highlighted limitations of this approach and called for improved assessments of severity, others have suggested that the operational utility of such a simple approach makes it acceptable. An alternative pathway to evaluate fire severity that bridges fire combustion dynamics and ecophysiology via dose–response experiments is presented. We provide an illustrative example from a controlled nursery combustion laboratory experiment. In this example, severity is defined through changes in the ability of the plant to assimilate carbon at the leaf level. We also explore changes in the Differenced Normalised Differenced Vegetation Index (dNDVI) and the Differenced Normalised Burn Ratio (dNBR) as intermediate spectral indices. We demonstrate the potential of this methodology and propose dose–response metrics for quantifying severity in terms of carbon cycle processes.
Additional keywords: fire behaviour, fire effects, intensity.
References
Barbero R, Abatzoglou JT, Larkin NK, Kolden CA, Stocks BJ (2015) Climate change presents increased potential for very large fires in the contiguous United States. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 892–899.Butler BW, Dickinson MB (2010) Tree injury and mortality in fires: developing process-based models. Fire Ecology 6, 55–79.
| Tree injury and mortality in fires: developing process-based models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cansler CA, McKenzie D (2012) How robust are burn severity indices when applied in a new region? Evaluation of alternate field-based and remote sensing methods. Remote Sensing 4, 456–483.
| How robust are burn severity indices when applied in a new region? Evaluation of alternate field-based and remote sensing methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chuvieco E, Riaño D, Danson FM, Martin P (2006) Use of a radiative transfer model to simulate the postfire spectral response to burn severity. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, G04S09
| Use of a radiative transfer model to simulate the postfire spectral response to burn severity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Conard SG, Sukhinin AI, Stocks BJ, Cahoon DR, Davidenko EP, Ivanova GA (2002) Determining effects of area burned and fire severity on carbon cycling and emissions in Siberia. Climatic Change 55, 197–211.
| Determining effects of area burned and fire severity on carbon cycling and emissions in Siberia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XntVKqt7o%3D&md5=11724c7b0edc5560ac7cbb61beb91768CAS |
Disney MI, Lewis P, Gomeza-Dans J, Roy DP, Wooster MJ, Lajas D (2011) 3D radiative transfer modelling of fire impacts on a two-layer savanna system. Remote Sensing of Environment 115, 1866–1881.
| 3D radiative transfer modelling of fire impacts on a two-layer savanna system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dumroese DS, Abbott AM, Rice TM (2009). Forest Soil Disturbance Monitoring Protocol: Volume II: Supplementary methods, statistics, and data collection. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report WO-GTR-82b (Washington, DC).
Eidenshink J, Schwind B, Brewer K, Zhu Z, Quayle B, Howard S (2007) A project for monitoring trends in burn severity. Fire Ecology 3, 3–21.
| A project for monitoring trends in burn severity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finney MA, Cohgen JD, McAllister SS, Jolly WM (2013) On the need for a theory of wildland fire spread. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 25–36.
| On the need for a theory of wildland fire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Finney MA, Cohen JD, Forthofer JM, McAllister SS, Gollner MJ, Gorham DJ, Saito K, Akafuah NK, Adam BA, English JD (2015) Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112, 9833–9838.
| Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhtFOksbnM&md5=8bce922e49fb2496b7c2fdbca1e16d7fCAS | 26183227PubMed |
Frankman D, Webb BW, Butler BW, Jimenez DF, Jason M, Sopko P, Shannon KS, Hiers KJ, Ottmar RD (2013) Measurements of convective and radiative heating in wildland fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 157–167.
| Measurements of convective and radiative heating in wildland fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Freeborn PH, Cochrane MA, Jolly WM (2015) Relationships between fire danger and the daily number and daily growth of active incidents burning in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 900–910.
French NHF, Kasischke ES, Hall RJ, Murphy KA, Verbyla DL, Hoy EE, Allen JL (2008) Using Landsat data to assess fire and burn severity in the North American boreal forest region: an overview and summary of results. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 443–462.
| Using Landsat data to assess fire and burn severity in the North American boreal forest region: an overview and summary of results.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Glenn EP, Cardann P, Thompson TL (1984) Seasonal effects of shading on growth of greenhouse lettuce and spinach. Sceintia Horticulturae 24, 3–4. , 231–239.
Goetz SJ, Mack MC, Gurney KR, Randerson JT, Houghton RA (2007) Ecosystem responses to recent climate change and fire disturbance at northern high latitudes: observations and model results contrasting northern Eurasia and North America. Environmental Research Letters 2, 045031
| Ecosystem responses to recent climate change and fire disturbance at northern high latitudes: observations and model results contrasting northern Eurasia and North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hall RJ, Freeburn JT, de Groot WJ, Pritchard JM, Lynham TJ, Landry R (2008) Remote sensing of burn severity: experience from western Canada boreal fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 476–489.
| Remote sensing of burn severity: experience from western Canada boreal fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Halofsky JE, Hibbs DE (2009) Relationships among indices of fire severity in riparian zones. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 584–593.
| Relationships among indices of fire severity in riparian zones.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hatten JA, Zabowski D (2009) Changes in soil organic matter pools and carbon mineralization as influenced by fire severity. Soil Science Society of America Journal 73, 262–273.
| Changes in soil organic matter pools and carbon mineralization as influenced by fire severity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXitVarsbw%3D&md5=112efd2e7ebd2e04e472d8e5582bd811CAS |
Hudak AT, Morgan P, Bobbitt MJ, Smith AMS, Lewis SA, Lentile LB, Robichaud PR, Clark JT, McKinley RA (2007) The relationship of multispectral satellite imagery to immediate fire effects. Fire Ecology 3, 64–90.
| The relationship of multispectral satellite imagery to immediate fire effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones JL, Webb BW, Butler BW, Dickinson MB, Jimenez D, Reardon J, Bova AS (2006) Prediction and measurement of thermally induced cambial tissue necrosis in tree stems. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 3–7.
| Prediction and measurement of thermally induced cambial tissue necrosis in tree stems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kane VR, Cansler CA, Poval NA, Kane JT, McGaughey RJ, Lutz JA, Churchill DJ, North MP (2015a) Mixed severity fire effects within the Rim fire: relative importance of local climate, fire weather, topography, and forest structure. Forest Ecology and Management 358, 62–79.
| Mixed severity fire effects within the Rim fire: relative importance of local climate, fire weather, topography, and forest structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kane VR, Lutz JA, Cansler CA, Povak NA, Churchill DJ, Smith DF, Kane JT, North MP (2015b) Water balance and topography predict fire and forest structure patterns. Forest Ecology and Management 338, 1–13.
| Water balance and topography predict fire and forest structure patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kashian DM, Romme WH, Tinker DB, Turner MG, Ryan MG (2006) Carbon storage on landscapes with stand replacing fires. Bioscience 56, 598–606.
| Carbon storage on landscapes with stand replacing fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kavanagh KL, Dickinson MB, Bova AS (2010) A way forward for fire-caused tree mortality prediction: modeling a physiological consequence of fire. Fire Ecology 6, 80–94.
| A way forward for fire-caused tree mortality prediction: modeling a physiological consequence of fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeley JE (2009) Fire intensity, fire severity and burn severity: a brief review and suggested usage. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 116–126.
| Fire intensity, fire severity and burn severity: a brief review and suggested usage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Key CH, Benson NC (2006) Landscape assessment: ground measure of severity, the Composite Burn Index; and remote sensing of severity, the Normalized Burn Ratio. In ‘FIREMON: fire effects monitoring and inventory system’. (Eds DC Lutes, RE Keane, JF Caratti, CH Key, NC Benson, S Sutherland, LJ Gangi) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-164-CD: LA, pp. 1–51. (Ogden, UT)
Kolden CA, Smith AMS, Abatzoglou JT (2015) Limitations and utilization of Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity products for assessing wildfire severity in the USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 1023–1028.
| Limitations and utilization of Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity products for assessing wildfire severity in the USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kremens RL, Smith AMS, Dickinson MB (2010) Fire metrology: current and future directions in physics-based measurements. Fire Ecology 6, 13–35.
| Fire metrology: current and future directions in physics-based measurements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kremens RL, Dickinson MB, Bova AS (2012) Radiant flux density, energy density and fuel consumption in mixed-oak forest surface fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 21, 722–730.
| Radiant flux density, energy density and fuel consumption in mixed-oak forest surface fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lentile LB, Holden Z, Smith AMS, Falkowski MJ, Hudak AT, Morgan P, Lewis SA, Gessler PE, Benson NC (2006a) Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire and post-fire effects. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 319–345.
| Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire and post-fire effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lentile LB, Smith FW, Shepperd WD (2006b) Influence of topography and forest structures on patterns of mixed severity fire in ponderosa pine forests of the South Dakota Black Hills, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 557–566.
| Influence of topography and forest structures on patterns of mixed severity fire in ponderosa pine forests of the South Dakota Black Hills, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lentile LB, Smith AMS, Hudak AT, Morgan P, Bobbitt M, Lewis SA, Robichaud P (2009) Remote sensing for prediction of 1-year post-fire ecosystem condition. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 594–608.
| Remote sensing for prediction of 1-year post-fire ecosystem condition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lutz JA, Key CH, Kolden CA, Kane JT, van Wagtendonk JW (2011) Fire frequency, area burned, and severity: a quantitative approach to defining a normal fire year. Fire Ecology 7, 51–65.
| Fire frequency, area burned, and severity: a quantitative approach to defining a normal fire year.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Michaletz ST, Johnson EA (2007) How forest fires kill trees: a review of the fundamental biophysical processes. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 22, 500–515.
| How forest fires kill trees: a review of the fundamental biophysical processes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Michaletz ST, Johnson EA, Tyree MT (2012) Moving beyond the cambium necrosis hypothesis of post-fire tree mortality: cavitation and deformation of xylem in forest fires. New Phytologist 194, 254–263.
| Moving beyond the cambium necrosis hypothesis of post-fire tree mortality: cavitation and deformation of xylem in forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC383mt12gtA%3D%3D&md5=ffc9351fa17d7d150c1d1e9b67ed471fCAS | 22276783PubMed |
Miller JD, Thode AE (2007) Quantifying burn severity in a heterogeneous landscape with a relative version of the delta Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR). Remote Sensing of Environment 109, 66–80.
| Quantifying burn severity in a heterogeneous landscape with a relative version of the delta Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moody JA, Martin DA (2001) Post-fire, rainfall intensity-peak discharge relations for three mountainous watersheds in the western USA. Hydrological Processes 15, 2981–2993.
| Post-fire, rainfall intensity-peak discharge relations for three mountainous watersheds in the western USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morgan P, Hardy CC, Swetnam TW, Rollins MG, Long DG (2001) Mapping fire regimes across time and space: understanding coarse and fine-scale fire patterns. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 329–342.
| Mapping fire regimes across time and space: understanding coarse and fine-scale fire patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morgan P, Keane RE, Dillon GK, Jain TB, Hudak AT, Karau EC, Sikkink PG, Holden ZA, Strand EK (2014) Challenges of assessing fire and burn severity using field measures, remote sensing and modelling. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, 1045–1060.
| Challenges of assessing fire and burn severity using field measures, remote sensing and modelling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moritz MA, Parisen M-A, Batllori E, Krawchuk MA, Dorn JV, Ganz DJ, Hayhow K (2012) Climate change and disruptions to global fire activity. Ecosphere 3, art49
| Climate change and disruptions to global fire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ottmar RD, Hudak AT, Prichard SJ, Wright CS, Restaino JC, Kennedy MC, Vihnanek RE (2015) Pre-fire and post-fire surface fuel and cover measurements collected in the south-eastern United States for model evaluation and development – RxCADRE 2008, 2011 and 2012. International Journal of Wildland Fire
| Pre-fire and post-fire surface fuel and cover measurements collected in the south-eastern United States for model evaluation and development – RxCADRE 2008, 2011 and 2012.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Romme WH, Boyce MS, Gresswell R, Merrill EH, Minshall GW, Whitlock C, Turner MG (2011) Twenty years after the 1988 Yellowstone fires: lessons about disturbance and ecosystems. Ecosystems 14, 1196–1215.
| Twenty years after the 1988 Yellowstone fires: lessons about disturbance and ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roy DP, Boschetti L, Trigg SN (2006) Remote sensing of fire severity: assessing the performance of the normalized burn ratio. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 3, 112–116.
| Remote sensing of fire severity: assessing the performance of the normalized burn ratio.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roy DP, Boschetti L, Smith AMS (2013) Satellite remote sensing of fires. In ‘Fire phenomena and the earth system: an interdisciplinary guide to fire science’. (Eds CM Belcher, G Rein) pp. 77–94. (John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK).
Ryan KC, Noste NV (1985) Evaluating prescribed fires. In ‘Proceedings, symposiums and workshop on wilderness fire’, 15–18 November 1983, Missoula, MT. (Eds JE Lotan, BM Kilgore, WC Fischer, RW Mutch) USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-182, pp. 230–238. (Missoula, MT)
Schoettle AW, Smith WK (1998) Interrelationships among light, photosynthesis and nitrogen in the crown of mature Pinus contorta spp. Latifolia. Tree Physiology 19, 13–22.
| Interrelationships among light, photosynthesis and nitrogen in the crown of mature Pinus contorta spp. Latifolia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schwartz S (1994) The fallacy of the ecological fallacy: the potential misuse of a concept and the consequences. American Journal of Public Health 84, 819–824.
| The fallacy of the ecological fallacy: the potential misuse of a concept and the consequences.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK2c3jsVCitg%3D%3D&md5=ce3775ca5e78edb5871b78b0ff4a6f1bCAS | 8179055PubMed |
Sikkink PG, Keane RE (2012) Predicting fire severity using surface fuels and moisture. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Research Paper RMRS-RP-96. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_rp096.pdf [Verified 15 December 2015]
Smith AMS, Wooster MJ, Drake NA, Dipotso FM, Falkowski MJ, Hudak AT (2005) Testing the potential of multi-spectral remote sensing for retrospectively estimating fire severity in African savanna environments. Remote Sensing of Environment 97, 92–115.
| Testing the potential of multi-spectral remote sensing for retrospectively estimating fire severity in African savanna environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith AMS, Eitel JUH, Hudak AT (2010) Spectral analysis of charcoal on soils: implications for wildland fire severity mapping methods. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 976–983.
| Spectral analysis of charcoal on soils: implications for wildland fire severity mapping methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtlyjsL3M&md5=a46e6056bf10bcf05ac048c8e9c5ef06CAS |
Smith AMS, Tinkham WT, Roy DP, Boschetti L, Kumar S, Sparks AM, Kremens RL, Falkowski MJ (2013) Quantification of fuel moisture effects on biomass consumed derived from fire radiative energy retrievals. Geophysical Research Letters 40, 6298–6302.
| Quantification of fuel moisture effects on biomass consumed derived from fire radiative energy retrievals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith AMS, Kolden CA, Tinkham WT, Talhelm AT, Marshall JD, Hudak AT, Boschetti L, Falkowski MJ, Greenberg JA, Anderson JW, Kliskey AD, Alessa L, Keefe RF, Gosz J (2014) Remote sensing the vulnerability of vegetation in natural terrestrial ecosystems. Remote Sensing of Environment 154, 322–337.
| Remote sensing the vulnerability of vegetation in natural terrestrial ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Swap RJ, Annegarn HJ, Suttles JT, King MD, Platnick S, Privette JL, Scholes RJ (2003) Africa burning: a thematic analysis of the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000). Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 8465
| Africa burning: a thematic analysis of the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thomson W (1889) ‘Electrical units of measurement, popular lectures and addresses. Volume 1: constitution of matter’. (Macmillan and Co.: New York).
Trenberth KE (2011) Changes in precipitation with climate change. Climate Research 47, 123–138.
| Changes in precipitation with climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Trollope WSW, Trollope LA, Potgieter LF, Zambatis N (1996) SAFARI-92 characterization of biomass and fire behavior in the small experimental burns in the Kruger National Park. Journal of Geophysical Research 101, 23 531–23 539.
| SAFARI-92 characterization of biomass and fire behavior in the small experimental burns in the Kruger National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wagner CE (1971) Two solitudes in forest fire research. Canadian Forestry Service, Petawawa Forest Experiment Station, Information Report PS-X-29. (Chalk River, ON).
van Wagtendonk JW, Root RR, Key CH (2004) Comparison of AVIRIS and Landsat ETM+ detection capabilities for burn severity. Remote Sensing of Environment 92, 397–408.
| Comparison of AVIRIS and Landsat ETM+ detection capabilities for burn severity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Viegas DX, Almeida M, Mirand AI, Ribeiro LM (2010) Linear model for spread rate and mass loss rate for mixed-size fuel beds. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 531–540.
| Linear model for spread rate and mass loss rate for mixed-size fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Viegas DX, Soares J, Almeida M (2013) Combustibility of a mixture of live and dead fuel components. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 992–1002.
| Combustibility of a mixture of live and dead fuel components.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhs1yrsr7F&md5=b1dbf76fc422862dfe1573af0ef15124CAS |
Wooster MJ, Roberts G, Perry GLW, Kaufman YJ (2005) Retrieval of biomass combustion rates and totals from fire radiative power observations: FRP derivation and calibration relationships between biomass consumption and fire radiative energy release. Journal of Geophysical Research 110, D24311
| Retrieval of biomass combustion rates and totals from fire radiative power observations: FRP derivation and calibration relationships between biomass consumption and fire radiative energy release.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
