Register      Login
Wildlife Research Wildlife Research Society
Ecology, management and conservation in natural and modified habitats
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Measuring connectivity of invasive stoat populations to inform conservation management

A. J. Veale A D , D. M. Gleeson B C and M. N. Clout A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, 261 Morin Road, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.

B Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.

C Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Landcare Research, 231 Morin Road, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.

D Corresponding author. Email: andrew.j.veale@gmail.com

Wildlife Research 41(5) 395-406 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR14015
Submitted: 22 January 2014  Accepted: 16 October 2014   Published: 20 February 2015

Abstract

Context: Effective design of conservation management programs for long-term population control requires an accurate definition of the spatial extent of populations, along with a proper understanding of the ways that landscape patchiness influences demography and dispersal within these populations.

Aims: In the present study, genetic techniques are used to describe the population genetic structure and connectivity of invasive stoats (Mustela erminea) across the Auckland region, New Zealand, so as to assist planning for mainland stoat control, and define potential future eradication units.

Methods: A sample of stoats from across the region (n = 120), was genotyped at 17 microsatellite loci, and a combination of clustering, genetic population assignment and various migration estimation methods were applied to these data.

Key results: Moderate population structure was observed (FST = 0.03–0.21), with five geographic populations defined by genetic clustering. Almost all individuals were correctly assigned to the location of origin, and recent migration rates among forest patches were found to be low.

Conclusions: It is possible to define the origin of stoats at this regional scale using genetic measures. From this, we show that the stoat incursion on Rangitoto Island that occurred post-eradication in 2010 probably came from East Auckland (P < 0.0001), whereas the 2014 stoat incursion on Motutapu Island probably originated from a population linked to the Waitakeres. Also, the Waiheke Island stoat population has minimal connection to all other populations and it is therefore a potential eradication unit.

Implications: The low migration rates among forest patches indicated that if thorough control is imposed on a discrete forest patch, reinvasion from other forest patches will be relatively low. Importantly, for stoat control in the region, the isolation of the Waiheke Island stoat population means that eradication here is likely to be feasible with low reinvasion pressure.

Additional keywords: assignment, eradication, genetic, invasion, microsatellite, migration, Mustela erminea.


References

Abdelkrim, J., Pascal, M., and Samadi, S. (2005). Island colonization and founder effects: the invasion of the Guadeloupe islands by ship rats (Rattus rattus). Molecular Ecology 14, 2923–2931.
Island colonization and founder effects: the invasion of the Guadeloupe islands by ship rats (Rattus rattus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16101763PubMed |

Abdelkrim, J., Pascal, M., and Samadi, S. (2007). Establishing causes of eradication failure based on genetics: case study of ship rat eradication in St. Anne archipelago. Conservation Biology 21, 719–730.
Establishing causes of eradication failure based on genetics: case study of ship rat eradication in St. Anne archipelago.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17531050PubMed |

Abdelkrim, J., Byrom, A. E., and Gemmell, N. J. (2010). Fine-scale genetic structure of mainland invasive Rattus rattus populations: implications for restoration of forested conservation areas in New Zealand. Conservation Genetics 11, 1953–1964.
Fine-scale genetic structure of mainland invasive Rattus rattus populations: implications for restoration of forested conservation areas in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Adamack, A. T., and Gruber, B. (2014). PopGenReport: simplifying basic population genetic analyses in R. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5, 384–387.
PopGenReport: simplifying basic population genetic analyses in R.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Alterio, N., Moller, H., and Ratz, H. (1998). Movements and habitat use of feral house cats Felis catus, stoats Mustela erminea and ferrets Mustela furo, in grassland surrounding yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes breeding area in spring. Biological Conservation 83, 187–194.
Movements and habitat use of feral house cats Felis catus, stoats Mustela erminea and ferrets Mustela furo, in grassland surrounding yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes breeding area in spring.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barton, N., and Slatkin, M. (1986). A quasi-equilibrium theory of the distribution of rare alleles in a subdivided population. Heredity 56, 409–415.
A quasi-equilibrium theory of the distribution of rare alleles in a subdivided population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 3733460PubMed |

Beauchamp, A. J., Butler, D. J., and King, D. (1999). ‘Weka (Gallirallus australis) Recovery Plan 1999–2009.’ (Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.)

Bellingham, P. J., Towns, D. R., Cameron, E. K., Davis, J. J., Wardle, D. A., Wilmshurst, J. M., and Mulder, C. P. H. (2010). New Zealand island restoration: seabirds, predators, and the importance of history. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 34, 115–136.

Berry, O., and Kirkwood, R. (2010). Measuring recruitment in an invasive species to determine eradication potential. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 1661–1670.
Measuring recruitment in an invasive species to determine eradication potential.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bodey, T. W., Bearhop, S., and McDonald, R. A. (2011). Localised control of an introduced predator: creating problems for the future? Biological Invasions 13, 2817–2828.
Localised control of an introduced predator: creating problems for the future?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bomford, M., and O’Brien, P. (1995). Eradication or control for vertebrate pests. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23, 249–255.

Broome, K., Cromarty, P., and Cox, A. (2005). Rat eradications: how to get it right without a recipe. In ‘Proceedings of 13th Australasian Vertebrate Pest Conference’. (Landcare Research Ltd: Lincoln, New Zealand.)

Brown, K. (2003). ‘Identifying Long-term Cost-effective Approaches to Stoat Control. A Review of Sixteen Sites in 2002.’ (Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.)

Bryce, R., Oliver, M. K., Davies, L., Gray, H., Urquhart, J., and Lambin, X. (2011). Turning back the tide of American mink invasion at an unprecedented scale through community participation and adaptive management. Biological Conservation 144, 575–583.
Turning back the tide of American mink invasion at an unprecedented scale through community participation and adaptive management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Clapperton, B. K., and Day, T. D. (2001). ‘Cost-effectiveness of Exclusion Fencing for Stoat and Other Pest Control Compared with Conventional Control.’ (Wellington, New Zealand.)

Clout, M. N., and Russell, J. C. (2008). The invasion ecology of mammals: a global perspective. Wildlife Research 35, 180–184.
The invasion ecology of mammals: a global perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Connolly, T. A., Day, T. D., and King, C. M. (2009). Estimating the potential for reinvasion by mammalian pests through pest-exclusion fencing. Wildlife Research 36, 410–421.
Estimating the potential for reinvasion by mammalian pests through pest-exclusion fencing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cornuet, J.-M., Piry, S., Luikart, G., Estoup, A., and Solignac, M. (1999). New methods employing multilocus genotypes to select or exclude populations as origins of individuals. Genetics 153, 1989–2000.
| 10581301PubMed |

Debrot, S., and Mermod, C. (1983). The spatial and temporal distribution pattern of the stoat (Mustela erminea). Oecologia 59, 69–73.
The spatial and temporal distribution pattern of the stoat (Mustela erminea).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25024150PubMed |

Dupanloup, I., Schneider, S., and Excoffier, L. (2002). A simulated annealing approach to define the genetic structure of populations. Molecular Ecology 11, 2571–2581.
| 12453240PubMed |

Earl, D. A., and von Holdt, B. M. (2012). STRUCTURE HARVESTER: a website and program for visualizing STRUCTURE output and implementing the Evanno method. Conservation Genetics Resources 4, 359–361.
STRUCTURE HARVESTER: a website and program for visualizing STRUCTURE output and implementing the Evanno method.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Erlinge, S. (1977). Spacing strategy in stoat Mustela erminea. Oikos 28, 32–42.
Spacing strategy in stoat Mustela erminea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Evanno, G., Regnaut, S., and Goudet, J. (2005). Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: a simulation study. Molecular Ecology 14, 2611–2620.
Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: a simulation study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15969739PubMed |

Excoffier, L., and Lischer, H. E. L. (2010). Arlequin suite ver 3.5: a new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under Linux and Windows. Resources 10, 564–567.

Falush, D., Stephens, M., and Pritchard, J. K. (2003). Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data: linked loci and correlated allele frequencies. Genetics 164, 1567–1587.
| 12930761PubMed |

Faubet, P., and Gaggiotti, O. E. (2008). A new Bayesian method to identify the environmental factors that influence recent migration. Genetics 178, 1491–1504.
A new Bayesian method to identify the environmental factors that influence recent migration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18245344PubMed |

Faubet, P., Waples, R. S., and Gaggiotti, O. E. (2007). Evaluating the performance of a multilocus Bayesian method for the estimation of migration rates. Molecular Ecology 16, 1149–1166.
Evaluating the performance of a multilocus Bayesian method for the estimation of migration rates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17391403PubMed |

Fraser, E. J., Macdonald, D. W., Oliver, M. K., Piertney, S., and Lambin, X. (2013). Using population genetic structure of an invasive mammal to target control efforts: an example of the American mink in Scotland. Biological Conservation 167, 35–42.
Using population genetic structure of an invasive mammal to target control efforts: an example of the American mink in Scotland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fraser, C. I., Banks, S. C., and Waters, J. M. (2015). Priority effects can lead to underestimation of dispersal and invasion potential. Biological Invasions 17, 1–8.
Priority effects can lead to underestimation of dispersal and invasion potential.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hanski, I. (1999). ‘Metapopulation Ecology.’ (Oxford University: Oxford, UK.)

Harris, D. B., Gregory, S. D., Bull, L. S., and Courchamp, F. (2012). Island prioritization for invasive rodent eradications with an emphasis on reinvasion risk. Biological Invasions 14, 1251–1263.
Island prioritization for invasive rodent eradications with an emphasis on reinvasion risk.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Innes, J., Kelly, D., Overton, J. M., and Gillies, C. (2010). Predation and other factors currently limiting New Zealand forest birds. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 34, 86–114.

Jakobsson, M., and Rosenberg, N. A. (2007). CLUMPP: a cluster matching and permutation program for dealing with label switching and multimodality in analysis of population structure. Bioinformatics 23, 1801–1806.
CLUMPP: a cluster matching and permutation program for dealing with label switching and multimodality in analysis of population structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17485429PubMed |

Janzen, D. H. (1986). The eternal external threat. In ‘Conservation Biology: the Science of Scarcity and Diversity’. (Ed. M. E. Soule.) pp. 286–303. (Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA.)

Jombart, T. (2008). Adegenet: an R package for the multivariate analysis of genetic markers. Bioinformatics 24, 1403–1405.
Adegenet: an R package for the multivariate analysis of genetic markers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18397895PubMed |

Jombart, T., Devillard, S., and Balloux, F. (2010). Discriminant analysis of principal components: a new method for the analysis of genetically structured populations. BMC Genetics 11, 94.
Discriminant analysis of principal components: a new method for the analysis of genetically structured populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20950446PubMed |

Jost, L. (2008). G(ST) and its relatives do not measure differentiation. Molecular Ecology 17, 4015–4026.
G(ST) and its relatives do not measure differentiation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19238703PubMed |

King, C. M. (2002). Cohort variation in the life-history parameters of stoats Mustela erminea in relation to fluctuating food resources: a challenge to boreal ecologists. Acta Theriologica 47, 225–244.
Cohort variation in the life-history parameters of stoats Mustela erminea in relation to fluctuating food resources: a challenge to boreal ecologists.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

King, C. M., and McMillan, C. D. (1982). Population structure and dispersal of peak-year cohorts of stoats (Mustela erminea) in two New Zealand forests, with especial reference to control. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 5, 59–66.

King, C. M., and Moody, J. E. (1982). The biology of the stoat (Mustela erminea) in the national parks of New Zealand. 4. Reproduction. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 9, 103–118.
The biology of the stoat (Mustela erminea) in the national parks of New Zealand. 4. Reproduction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

King, C. M., and Murphy, E. (2005). Stoat. In ‘New Zealand Handbook of Mammals.’ 2nd edn. (Ed. C. M. King.) pp. 261–287. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)

King, C. M., and Powell, R. A. (2007). ‘The Natural History of Weasels and Stoats: Ecology, Behaviour and Management.’ (Oxford University Press: New York.)

King, C. M., and Powell, R. A. (2011). Managing an invasive predator pre-adapted to a pulsed resource: a model of stoat (Mustela erminea) irruptions in New Zealand beech forests. Biological Invasions 13, 3039–3055.
Managing an invasive predator pre-adapted to a pulsed resource: a model of stoat (Mustela erminea) irruptions in New Zealand beech forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

King, C. M., Veale, A. J., Patty, B., and Hayward, L. (2014). Swimming capabilities of stoats and the threat to inshore sanctuaries. Biological Invasions 16, 987–995.
Swimming capabilities of stoats and the threat to inshore sanctuaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mack, R. N., Simberloff, D., Lonsdale, W. M., Evans, H., Clout, M. N., and Fakhri, B. (2000). Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences and control. Ecological Applications 10, 689–710.
Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences and control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marshall, W. H. (1963). The ecology of mustelids in New Zealand. In ‘DSIR Information Series 38’, p. 32. (New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.)

Miller, M. P., Haig, S. M., Ledig, D. B., Vander Heyden, M. F., and Bennett, G. (2011). Will an ‘Island’ population of voles be recolonized if eradicated? Insights from molecular genetic analyses. The Journal of Wildlife Management 75, 1812–1818.
Will an ‘Island’ population of voles be recolonized if eradicated? Insights from molecular genetic analyses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moorhouse, R., Greene, T., Dilks, P., Powlesland, R., Moran, L., Taylor, G., Jones, A., Knegtmans, J., Wills, D., Pryde, M., Fraser, I., August, A., and August, C. (2003). Control of introduced mammalian predators improves kaka Nestor meridionalis breeding success: reversing the decline of a threatened New Zealand parrot. Biological Conservation 110, 33–44.
Control of introduced mammalian predators improves kaka Nestor meridionalis breeding success: reversing the decline of a threatened New Zealand parrot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moritz, C., Worthington Wilmer, J., Pope, L., Sherwin, W. B., Taylor, A. C., and Limpus, C. J. (1996). Applications of genetics to the conservation and management of Australian fauna: four case studies from Queensland. In ‘Molecular Genetics Approaches to Conservation’. (Eds T. B. Smith and R. K. Wayne.) (Oxford University Press: New York.)

Murphy, E. C., and Dowding, J. E. (1994). Range and diet of stoats (Mustela erminea) in a New Zealand beech forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 18, 11–18.

Murphy, E. C., and Dowding, J. E. (1995). Ecology of the stoat in Nothofagus forest: home range, habitat use and diet at different stages of the beech mast cycle. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 19, 97–109.

Myers, J. H., Simberloff, D., Kuris, A. M., and Carey, J. R. (2000). Eradication revisited: dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology Evolution 15, 316–320.
Eradication revisited: dealing with exotic species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10884695PubMed |

Nei, M. (1973). Analysis of gene diversity in subdivided populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 70, 3321–3323.
Analysis of gene diversity in subdivided populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Neigel, J. E. (1997). A comparison of alternative strategies for estimating gene flow from genetic markers. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28, 105–128.
A comparison of alternative strategies for estimating gene flow from genetic markers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Neigel, J. E. (2002). Is F-ST obsolete? Conservation Genetics 3, 167–173.
Is F-ST obsolete?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paetkau, D., Slade, R., Burden, M., and Estoup, A. (2004). Genetic assignment methods for the direct, real-time estimation of migration rate: a simulation-based exploration of accuracy and power. Molecular Ecology 13, 55–65.
Genetic assignment methods for the direct, real-time estimation of migration rate: a simulation-based exploration of accuracy and power.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14653788PubMed |

Parkes, J., and Murphy, E. (2003). Management of introduced mammals in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 30, 335–359.
Management of introduced mammals in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Piry, S., Alapetite, A., Cornuet, J. M., Paetkau, D., Baudouin, L., and Estoup, A. (2004). GENECLASS2: a software for genetic assignment and first-generation migrant detection. The Journal of Heredity 95, 536–539.
GENECLASS2: a software for genetic assignment and first-generation migrant detection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15475402PubMed |

Prada, D., Veale, A. J., Duckworth, J., Howitt, R. L. J., Murphy, D. J., Treadgold, S., and Gleeson, D. (2013). Unwelcome visitors: employing forensic methodologies to inform the stoat (Mustela erminea) incursion response plan on Kapiti Island. New Zealand Journal of Zoology. , .
Unwelcome visitors: employing forensic methodologies to inform the stoat (Mustela erminea) incursion response plan on Kapiti Island.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pritchard, J. K., Stephens, M., and Donnelly, P. (2000). Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155, 945–959.
| 10835412PubMed |

Pulliam, H. R. (1988). Sources, sinks, and population regulation. American Naturalist 132, 652–661.
Sources, sinks, and population regulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ragionieri, L., Cutuli, G., Sposimo, P., Spano, G., Navone, A., Capizzi, D., Baccetti, N., Vannini, M., and Fratini, S. (2013). Establishing the eradication unit of Molara Island: a case of study from Sardinia, Italy. Biological Invasions 15, 2731–2742.
Establishing the eradication unit of Molara Island: a case of study from Sardinia, Italy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rannala, B., and Mountain, J. (1997). Detecting immigration by using multilocus genotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 94, 9197–9201.
Detecting immigration by using multilocus genotypes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Raymond, M., and Rousset, F. (1995). GENEPOP (version-1.2): population-genetics software for exact tests and ecumenicism. The Journal of Heredity 86, 248–249.

Robertson, H. A. (2003). ‘Robertson HA 2003. Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) Recovery Plan 1996–2006.’ (Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.)

Robertson, B. C., and Gemmell, N. J. (2004). Defining eradication units to control invasive pests. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 1042–1048.
Defining eradication units to control invasive pests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rosenberg, N. A. (2004). DISTRUCT: a program for the graphical display of population structure. Molecular Ecology Notes 4, 137–138.
DISTRUCT: a program for the graphical display of population structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rousset, F. (2008). Genepop’007: a complete reimplementation of the Genepop software for Windows and Linux. Molecular Ecology Resources 8, 103–106.
Genepop’007: a complete reimplementation of the Genepop software for Windows and Linux.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21585727PubMed |

Russell, J. C., Miller, S. D., Harper, G. A., MacInnes, H. E., Wylie, M. J., and Fewster, R. M. (2010). Survivors or reinvaders? Using genetic assignment to identify invasive pests following eradication. Biological Invasions 12, 1747–1757.
Survivors or reinvaders? Using genetic assignment to identify invasive pests following eradication.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Slatkin, M. (1985). Rare alleles as indicators of gene flow. Evolution 39, 53–65.
Rare alleles as indicators of gene flow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Slatkin, M., and Barton, N. H. (1989). A comparison of three indirect methods for estimating average levels of gene flow. Evolution 43, 1349–1368.
A comparison of three indirect methods for estimating average levels of gene flow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tennyson, A. J. D. (2010). The origin and history of New Zealand’s terrestrial vertebrates. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 34, 6–27.

Thomson, G. M. (1922). ‘The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)

Travis, J. M. J., and Park, K. J. (2004). Spatial structure and the control of invasive alien species. Animal Conservation 7, 321–330.
Spatial structure and the control of invasive alien species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Veale, AJ (2013). Observations of stoats (Mustela erminea) swimming. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 40, 166–169.

Veale, A. J., Hannaford, O. D., Russell, J. C., and Clout, M. N. (2012a). Modelling the distribution of stoats on New Zealand offshore islands. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 36, 38–47.

Veale, A. J., Clout, M. N., and Gleeson, D. M. (2012b). Genetic population assignment reveals a long-distance incursion to an island by a stoat (Mustela erminea). Biological Invasions 14, 735–742.
Genetic population assignment reveals a long-distance incursion to an island by a stoat (Mustela erminea).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Veale, A. J., Edge, K.-A., McMurtrie, P., Fewster, R. M., Clout, M. N., and Gleeson, D. M. (2013). Using genetic techniques to quantify reinvasion, survival and in-situ breeding rates during control/eradication operations. Molecular Ecology 22, 5071–5083.
Using genetic techniques to quantify reinvasion, survival and in-situ breeding rates during control/eradication operations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24033616PubMed |

Waples, R. S., and Gaggiotti, O. (2006). What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity. Molecular Ecology 15, 1419–1439.
What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16629801PubMed |

Williams, M., and Dumbell, G. S. (1996). ‘Brown Teal (Pateke) Anas chlorotis Recovery Plan.’ (Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.)

Wilson, G. A., and Rannala, B. (2003). Bayesian inference of recent migration rates using multilocus genotypes. Genetics 163, 1177–1191.
| 12663554PubMed |

Wilson, P. R., Karl, B. J., Toft, R. J., Beggs, J. R., and Taylor, R. H. (1998). The role of introduced predators and competitors in the decline of kaka (Nestor meridionalis) populations in New Zealand. Biological Conservation 83, 175–185.
The role of introduced predators and competitors in the decline of kaka (Nestor meridionalis) populations in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Worthy, T. H., and Holdaway, R. N. (2002). ‘The Lost World of the Moa: Prehistoric Life of New Zealand.’ (Canterbury University Press: Christchurch, New Zealand.)

Wright, S. (1949). The genetical structure of populations. Annals of Eugenics 15, 323–354.
The genetical structure of populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wright, S. (1965). The interpretation of population structure by F-statistics with special regard to systems of mating. Evolution 19, 395–420.
The interpretation of population structure by F-statistics with special regard to systems of mating.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wright, S. (1969). ‘Evolution and the Genetics of Populations: the theory of gene frequencies.’ (The University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.)