Register      Login
Reproduction, Fertility and Development Reproduction, Fertility and Development Society
Vertebrate reproductive science and technology
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Oxygen modulates human embryonic stem cell metabolism in the absence of changes in self-renewal

Alexandra J. Harvey A B , Joy Rathjen A B C , Lijia Jackie Yu A D and David K. Gardner A B E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.

B Stem Cells Australia, Melbourne Brain Centre, University of Melbourne, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Vic. 3010, Australia.

C Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, University of Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, Tas. 7000, Australia.

D Present address: Cellestis International Pty Ltd, 1341 Dandenong Road, Chadstone, Vic. 3148, Australia.

E Corresponding author. Email: david.gardner@unimelb.edu.au

Reproduction, Fertility and Development 28(4) 446-458 https://doi.org/10.1071/RD14013
Submitted: 15 January 2014  Accepted: 2 July 2014   Published: 22 August 2014

Abstract

Human embryonic stem (ES) cells are routinely cultured under atmospheric oxygen (~20%), a concentration that is known to impair embryo development in vitro and is likely to be suboptimal for maintaining human ES cells compared with physiological (~5%) oxygen conditions. Conflicting reports exist on the effect of oxygen during human ES cell culture and studies have been largely limited to characterisation of typical stem cell markers or analysis of global expression changes. This study aimed to identify physiological markers that could be used to evaluate the metabolic impact of oxygen on the MEL-2 human ES cell line after adaptation to either 5% or 20% oxygen in extended culture. ES cells cultured under atmospheric oxygen displayed decreased glucose consumption and lactate production when compared with those cultured under 5% oxygen, indicating an overall higher flux of glucose through glycolysis under physiological conditions. Higher glucose utilisation at 5% oxygen was accompanied by significantly increased expression of all glycolytic genes analysed. Analysis of amino acid turnover highlighted differences in the consumption of glutamine and threonine and in the production of proline. The expression of pluripotency and differentiation markers was, however, unaltered by oxygen and no observable difference in proliferation between cells cultured in 5% and 20% oxygen was seen. Apoptosis was elevated under 5% oxygen conditions. Collectively these data suggest that culture conditions, including oxygen concentration, can significantly alter human ES cell physiology with coordinated changes in gene expression, in the absence of detectable alterations in undifferentiated marker expression.

Additional keywords: amino acids, culture, glycolysis, microenvironment, pluripotency.


References

Abaci, H. E., Truitt, R., Luong, E., Drazer, G., and Gerecht, S. (2010). Adaptation to oxygen deprivation in cultures of human pluripotent stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells and umbilical vein endothelial cells. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 298, C1527–C1537.
Adaptation to oxygen deprivation in cultures of human pluripotent stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells and umbilical vein endothelial cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXnvFams7o%3D&md5=932b81f6d1b59708119d45c311ef39fcCAS | 20181925PubMed |

Adewumi, O., Aflatoonian, B., Ahrlund-Richter, L., Amit, M., Andrews, P. W., Beighton, G., Bello, P. A., Benvenisty, N., Berry, L. S., Bevan, S., Blum, B., Brooking, J., Chen, K. G., Choo, A. B., Churchill, G. A., Corbel, M., Damjanov, I., Draper, J. S., Dvorak, P., Emanuelsson, K., Fleck, R. A., Ford, A., Gertow, K., Gertsenstein, M., Gokhale, P. J., Hamilton, R. S., Hampl, A., Healy, L. E., Hovatta, O., Hyllner, J., Imreh, M. P., Itskovitz-Eldor, J., Jackson, J., Johnson, J. L., Jones, M., Kee, K., King, B. L., Knowles, B. B., Lako, M., Lebrin, F., Mallon, B. S., Manning, D., Mayshar, Y., McKay, R. D., Michalska, A. E., Mikkola, M., Mileikovsky, M., Minger, S. L., Moore, H. D., Mummery, C. L., Nagy, A., Nakatsuji, N., O’Brien, C. M., Oh, S. K., Olsson, C., Otonkoski, T., Park, K. Y., Passier, R., Patel, H., Patel, M., Pedersen, R., Pera, M. F., Piekarczyk, M. S., Pera, R. A., Reubinoff, B. E., Robins, A. J., Rossant, J., Rugg-Gunn, P., Schulz, T. C., Semb, H., Sherrer, E. S., Siemen, H., Stacey, G. N., Stojkovic, M., Suemori, H., Szatkiewicz, J., Turetsky, T., Tuuri, T., van den Brink, S., Vintersten, K., Vuoristo, S., Ward, D., Weaver, T. A., Young, L. A., and Zhang, W. (2007). Characterisation of human embryonic stem cell lines by the International Stem Cell Initiative. Nat. Biotechnol. 25, 803–816.
Characterisation of human embryonic stem cell lines by the International Stem Cell Initiative.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXnsFaru7w%3D&md5=b8bb94663f8d7858b3a7bed989c55229CAS | 17572666PubMed |

Basciano, L., Nemos, C., Foliguet, B., de Isla, N., de Carvalho, M., Tran, N., and Dalloul, A. (2011). Long-term culture of mesenchymal stem cells in hypoxia promotes a genetic program maintaining their undifferentiated and multipotent status. BMC Cell Biol. 12, 12.
Long-term culture of mesenchymal stem cells in hypoxia promotes a genetic program maintaining their undifferentiated and multipotent status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXkvV2gsbo%3D&md5=235214cbca8251a995aaf262aaf6c587CAS | 21450070PubMed |

Batt, P. A., Gardner, D. K., and Cameron, A. W. (1991). Oxygen concentration and protein source affect the development of preimplantation goat embryos in vitro. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 3, 601–607.
Oxygen concentration and protein source affect the development of preimplantation goat embryos in vitro.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XlsVKls7s%3D&md5=e3ae589331bc29e6bbaf7dac74dccd6bCAS | 1788401PubMed |

Callahan, D. L., Kolev, S. D., O’Hair, R. A., Salt, D. E., and Baker, A. J. (2007). Relationships of nicotianamine and other amino acids with nickel, zinc and iron in Thlaspi hyperaccumulators. New Phytol. 176, 836–848.
Relationships of nicotianamine and other amino acids with nickel, zinc and iron in Thlaspi hyperaccumulators.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjs1Wquw%3D%3D&md5=0540415ef6752512563ab2b9c3662fb2CAS | 17897323PubMed |

Catt, J. W., and Henman, M. (2000). Toxic effects of oxygen on human embryo development. Hum. Reprod. 15, 199–206.
Toxic effects of oxygen on human embryo development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11041525PubMed |

Chen, H. F., Kuo, H. C., Chen, W., Wu, F. C., Yang, Y. S., and Ho, H. N. (2009). A reduced oxygen tension (5%) is not beneficial for maintaining human embryonic stem cells in the undifferentiated state with short splitting intervals. Hum. Reprod. 24, 71–80.
A reduced oxygen tension (5%) is not beneficial for maintaining human embryonic stem cells in the undifferentiated state with short splitting intervals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsFWjtbfI&md5=55950728e02d3413159166abeb35db20CAS | 18819965PubMed |

Chen, H. F., Kuo, H. C., Lin, S. P., Chien, C. L., Chiang, M. S., and Ho, H. N. (2010). Hypoxic culture maintains self-renewal and enhances embryoid body formation of human embryonic stem cells. Tissue Eng. Part A 16, 2901–2913.
Hypoxic culture maintains self-renewal and enhances embryoid body formation of human embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVOiu7fK&md5=aee197e02cf16ac3267b29e3c3a8510bCAS | 20533883PubMed |

Christensen, D. R., Calder, P. C., and Houghton, F. D. (2014). Effect of oxygen tension on the amino acid utilisation of human embryonic stem cells. Cell. Physiol. Biochem. 33, 237–246.
Effect of oxygen tension on the amino acid utilisation of human embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXisFSisr8%3D&md5=71ff66d89a618de1f38326808fc5677aCAS | 24496287PubMed |

Conaghan, J., Hardy, K., Handyside, A. H., Winston, R. M., and Leese, H. J. (1993). Selection criteria for human embryo transfer: a comparison of pyruvate uptake and morphology. J. Assist. Reprod. Genet. 10, 21–30.
Selection criteria for human embryo transfer: a comparison of pyruvate uptake and morphology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK3s3ntFGksg%3D%3D&md5=32238fe50e720d2bd515a467fe62ab80CAS | 8499675PubMed |

Ezashi, T., Das, P., and Roberts, R. M. (2005). Low O2 tensions and the prevention of differentiation of hES cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 4783–4788.
Low O2 tensions and the prevention of differentiation of hES cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjt1Ohsrs%3D&md5=9e5cba5a7bc893e94b18a48b9d562ff2CAS | 15772165PubMed |

Fischer, B., and Bavister, B. D. (1993). Oxygen tension in the oviduct and uterus of rhesus monkeys, hamsters and rabbits. J. Reprod. Fertil. 99, 673–679.
Oxygen tension in the oviduct and uterus of rhesus monkeys, hamsters and rabbits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK2c7kvFKmtQ%3D%3D&md5=f7b8ce6e3d48b4a257e233b41a294b31CAS | 8107053PubMed |

Folmes, C. D., Nelson, T. J., Martinez-Fernandez, A., Arrell, D. K., Lindor, J. Z., Dzeja, P. P., Ikeda, Y., Perez-Terzic, C., and Terzic, A. (2011). Somatic oxidative bioenergetics transitions into pluripotency-dependent glycolysis to facilitate nuclear reprogramming. Cell Metab. 14, 264–271.
Somatic oxidative bioenergetics transitions into pluripotency-dependent glycolysis to facilitate nuclear reprogramming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXpsFKitbk%3D&md5=7f939ac7d398cd2547d9a608bd468000CAS | 21803296PubMed |

Forristal, C. E., Wright, K. L., Hanley, N. A., Oreffo, R. O., and Houghton, F. D. (2010). Hypoxia-inducible factors regulate pluripotency and proliferation in human embryonic stem cells cultured at reduced oxygen tensions. Reproduction 139, 85–97.
Hypoxia-inducible factors regulate pluripotency and proliferation in human embryonic stem cells cultured at reduced oxygen tensions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXovVWmsg%3D%3D&md5=adb83603280a113ce6bb14069832dce8CAS | 19755485PubMed |

Forristal, C. E., Christensen, D. R., Chinnery, F. E., Petruzzelli, R., Parry, K. L., Sanchez-Elsner, T., and Houghton, F. D. (2013). Environmental oxygen tension regulates the energy metabolism and self-renewal of human embryonic stem cells. PLoS ONE 8, e62507.
Environmental oxygen tension regulates the energy metabolism and self-renewal of human embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXns1OrsL0%3D&md5=4182ddca44ca9d6005f071bc26fd27beCAS | 23671606PubMed |

Forsyth, N. R., Musio, A., Vezzoni, P., Simpson, A. H., Noble, B. S., and McWhir, J. (2006). Physiologic oxygen enhances human embryonic stem cell clonal recovery and reduces chromosomal abnormalities. Cloning Stem Cells 8, 16–23.
Physiologic oxygen enhances human embryonic stem cell clonal recovery and reduces chromosomal abnormalities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XivFWgs7Y%3D&md5=f2a9b83e0d4f82b2b995ad27e13a55c0CAS | 16571074PubMed |

Forsyth, N. R., Kay, A., Hampson, K., Downing, A., Talbot, R., and McWhir, J. (2008). Transcriptome alterations due to physiological normoxic (2% O2) culture of human embryonic stem cells. Regen. Med. 3, 817–833.
Transcriptome alterations due to physiological normoxic (2% O2) culture of human embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht12jtrfE&md5=2db41d7923e5d42854edcb0964641887CAS | 18947306PubMed |

Gardner, D. K., and Lane, M. (2005). Ex vivo early embryo development and effects on gene expression and imprinting. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 17, 361–370.
Ex vivo early embryo development and effects on gene expression and imprinting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15745644PubMed |

Gardner, D. K., and Leese, H. J. (1990). Concentrations of nutrients in mouse oviduct fluid and their effects on embryo development and metabolism in vitro. J. Reprod. Fertil. 88, 361–368.
Concentrations of nutrients in mouse oviduct fluid and their effects on embryo development and metabolism in vitro.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXhsFCks7Y%3D&md5=732a4fbace00687af4cab1b4ec4a9985CAS | 2313649PubMed |

Gardner, D. K., and Wale, P. L. (2013). Analysis of metabolism to select viable human embryos for transfer. Fertil. Steril. 99, 1062–1072.
Analysis of metabolism to select viable human embryos for transfer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXnslyksQ%3D%3D&md5=c13911d2e331e0d95382dcf4a57717acCAS | 23312219PubMed |

Gardner, D. K., Wale, P. L., Collins, R., and Lane, M. (2011). Glucose consumption of single post-compaction human embryos is predictive of embryo sex and live-birth outcome. Hum. Reprod. 26, 1981–1986.
Glucose consumption of single post-compaction human embryos is predictive of embryo sex and live-birth outcome.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXptFCnsbw%3D&md5=ace414572487f123d46b1d239a4b4c6aCAS | 21572086PubMed |

Gibbons, J., Hewitt, E., and Gardner, D. K. (2006). Effects of oxygen tension on the establishment and lactate dehydrogenase activity of murine embryonic stem cells. Cloning Stem Cells 8, 117–122.
Effects of oxygen tension on the establishment and lactate dehydrogenase activity of murine embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XlvVGmu70%3D&md5=16677016ed6875cfc892f941a8bfcf44CAS | 16776603PubMed |

Gopichandran, N., and Leese, H. J. (2003). Metabolic characterisation of the bovine blastocyst, inner cell mass, trophectoderm and blastocoel fluid. Reproduction 126, 299–308.
Metabolic characterisation of the bovine blastocyst, inner cell mass, trophectoderm and blastocoel fluid.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXnslKksbg%3D&md5=eb253f679d24a0f3893d008a2bdbd13fCAS | 12968937PubMed |

Goto, Y., Noda, Y., Mori, T., and Nakano, M. (1993). Increased generation of reactive oxygen species in embryos cultured in vitro. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 15, 69–75.
Increased generation of reactive oxygen species in embryos cultured in vitro.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXlvFOnsL8%3D&md5=4394b3637b26f863c2714af0ae936cb7CAS | 8359711PubMed |

Harvey, A. J., Kind, K. L., Pantaleon, M., Armstrong, D. T., and Thompson, J. G. (2004). Oxygen-regulated gene expression in bovine blastocysts. Biol. Reprod. 71, 1108–1119.
Oxygen-regulated gene expression in bovine blastocysts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXnvVGqt7o%3D&md5=6595286bdffb8db4635a635ee65caa6bCAS | 15163614PubMed |

Harvey, A. J., Mao, S., Lalancette, C., Krawetz, S. A., and Brenner, C. A. (2012). Transcriptional differences between rhesus embryonic stem cells generated from in vitro- and in vivo-derived embryos. PLoS ONE 7, e43239.
Transcriptional differences between rhesus embryonic stem cells generated from in vitro- and in vivo-derived embryos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23028448PubMed |

Harvey, A. J., Rathjen, J., and Gardner, D. K. (2013) The metabolic framework of pluripotent stem cells and potential mechanisms of regulation. In ‘Stem Cells in Reproductive Medicine’. (Eds C. Simon, A. Pellicer and R. Reijo-Pera.) pp. 164–179. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Hewitson, L. C., and Leese, H. J. (1993). Energy metabolism of the trophectoderm and inner cell mass of the mouse blastocyst. J. Exp. Zool. 267, 337–343.
Energy metabolism of the trophectoderm and inner cell mass of the mouse blastocyst.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXlsFel&md5=5160c2920e02f675118a57b40e844697CAS | 8228868PubMed |

Houghton, F. D., Hawkhead, J. A., Humpherson, P. G., Hogg, J. E., Balen, A. H., Rutherford, A. J., and Leese, H. J. (2002). Non-invasive amino acid turnover predicts human embryo developmental capacity. Hum. Reprod. 17, 999–1005.
Non-invasive amino acid turnover predicts human embryo developmental capacity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xjs12isLg%3D&md5=d79ce6d1d1ea67330df9d83d8c88058fCAS | 11925397PubMed |

Katz-Jaffe, M. G., Linck, D. W., Schoolcraft, W. B., and Gardner, D. K. (2005). A proteomic analysis of mammalian preimplantation embryonic development. Reproduction 130, 899–905.
A proteomic analysis of mammalian preimplantation embryonic development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xkt12msg%3D%3D&md5=691070635f4eb4d1fbd46027b73a7aa5CAS | 16322549PubMed |

Kitagawa, Y., Suzuki, K., Yoneda, A., and Watanabe, T. (2004). Effects of oxygen concentration and antioxidants on the in vitro developmental ability, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA fragmentation in porcine embryos. Theriogenology 62, 1186–1197.
Effects of oxygen concentration and antioxidants on the in vitro developmental ability, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA fragmentation in porcine embryos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmvFCqs7o%3D&md5=ff8ea666b6a313457ef8b4765cb9ffc2CAS | 15325546PubMed |

Kondoh, H., Lleonart, M. E., Gil, J., Wang, J., Degan, P., Peters, G., Martinez, D., Carnero, A., and Beach, D. (2005). Glycolytic enzymes can modulate cellular life span. Cancer Res. 65, 177–185.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhvFansQ%3D%3D&md5=aba9198dcf82da2b9f69fbfe5f399b4eCAS | 15665293PubMed |

Kondoh, H., Lleonart, M. E., Nakashima, Y., Yokode, M., Tanaka, M., Bernard, D., Gil, J., and Beach, D. (2007). A high glycolytic flux supports the proliferative potential of murine embryonic stem cells. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 9, 293–299.
A high glycolytic flux supports the proliferative potential of murine embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtlKlsLw%3D&md5=6daf53987eb670682f9fdd7c737da60dCAS | 17184172PubMed |

Kwon, H. C., Yang, H. W., Hwang, K. J., Yoo, J. H., Kim, M. S., Lee, C. H., Ryu, H. S., and Oh, K. S. (1999). Effects of low oxygen condition on the generation of reactive oxygen species and the development in mouse embryos cultured in vitro. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res. 25, 359–366.
Effects of low oxygen condition on the generation of reactive oxygen species and the development in mouse embryos cultured in vitro.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c%2FgtlGhtA%3D%3D&md5=c11cc727649b52bee951987d6656563eCAS | 10533333PubMed |

Lane, M., and Gardner, D. K. (1996). Selection of viable mouse blastocysts prior to transfer using a metabolic criterion. Hum. Reprod. 11, 1975–1978.
Selection of viable mouse blastocysts prior to transfer using a metabolic criterion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2FnvFensA%3D%3D&md5=6d225be6a180038dfb276bf6d3da47bdCAS | 8921074PubMed |

Lane, M., and Gardner, D. K. (1998). Amino acids and vitamins prevent culture-induced metabolic perturbations and associated loss of viability of mouse blastocysts. Hum. Reprod. 13, 991–997.
Amino acids and vitamins prevent culture-induced metabolic perturbations and associated loss of viability of mouse blastocysts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjs12guro%3D&md5=6855936982b7900d4e6ce445017cb5a4CAS | 9619560PubMed |

Lane, M., and Gardner, D. K. (2005). Understanding cellular disruptions during early embryo development that perturb viability and fetal development. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 17, 371–378.
Understanding cellular disruptions during early embryo development that perturb viability and fetal development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjt12nt7c%3D&md5=d56f43965bef0d07e148265b90735fbbCAS | 15745645PubMed |

Lavrentieva, A., Majore, I., Kasper, C., and Hass, R. (2010). Effects of hypoxic culture conditions on umbilical cord-derived human mesenchymal stem cells. Cell Commun. Signal. 8, 18.
Effects of hypoxic culture conditions on umbilical cord-derived human mesenchymal stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20637101PubMed |

Leese, H. J., Conaghan, J., Martin, K. L., and Hardy, K. (1993). Early human embryo metabolism. Bioessays 15, 259–264.
Early human embryo metabolism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXltFCjsLY%3D&md5=4cee0946e0d612cabb57de481b48eba6CAS | 8517855PubMed |

Ludwig, T. E., Levenstein, M. E., Jones, J. M., Berggren, W. T., Mitchen, E. R., Frane, J. L., Crandall, L. J., Daigh, C. A., Conard, K. R., Piekarczyk, M. S., Llanas, R. A., and Thomson, J. A. (2006). Derivation of human embryonic stem cells in defined conditions. Nat. Biotechnol. 24, 185–187.
Derivation of human embryonic stem cells in defined conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtFGqsrg%3D&md5=bfdb440a265a242d2de47d83d40226ccCAS | 16388305PubMed |

Maas, D. H., Storey, B. T., and Mastroianni, L. (1976). Oxygen tension in the oviduct of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Fertil. Steril. 27, 1312–1317.
| 1:STN:280:DyaE2s%2Fis1Cjtg%3D%3D&md5=f623a201ceda239d4c924bfc2cacf5d3CAS | 824161PubMed |

Matés, J. M., Pérez-Gómez, C., Núñez de Castro, I., Asenjo, M., and Márquez, J. (2002). Glutamine and its relationship with intracellular redox status, oxidative stress and cell proliferation/death. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 34, 439–458.
Glutamine and its relationship with intracellular redox status, oxidative stress and cell proliferation/death.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11906817PubMed |

Mitchell, M., Cashman, K. S., Gardner, D. K., Thompson, J. G., and Lane, M. (2009). Disruption of mitochondrial malate–aspartate shuttle activity in mouse blastocysts impairs viability and fetal growth. Biol. Reprod. 80, 295–301.
Disruption of mitochondrial malate–aspartate shuttle activity in mouse blastocysts impairs viability and fetal growth.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhtFOitb4%3D&md5=6a967dfb278ab426ff39ef9f6c91dedeCAS | 18971426PubMed |

Muller, P. Y., Janovjak, H., Miserez, A. R., and Dobbie, Z. (2002). Processing of gene expression data generated by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Biotechniques 32, 1372–1374, 1376, 1378–1379.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XksVyqur4%3D&md5=d8c41f46241d752bd9c176130ce71706CAS | 12074169PubMed |

Nanassy, L., Peterson, C. A., Wilcox, A. L., Peterson, C. M., Hammoud, A., and Carrell, D. T. (2010). Comparison of 5% and ambient oxygen during Days 3–5 of in vitro culture of human embryos. Fertil. Steril. 93, 579–585.
Comparison of 5% and ambient oxygen during Days 3–5 of in vitro culture of human embryos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19342024PubMed |

Newsholme, E. A., Crabtree, B., and Ardawi, M. S. (1985). The role of high rates of glycolysis and glutamine utilisation in rapidly dividing cells. Biosci. Rep. 5, 393–400.
The role of high rates of glycolysis and glutamine utilisation in rapidly dividing cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXltVans7c%3D&md5=534bf01a50b0d7f99d67c9e086f28986CAS | 3896338PubMed |

Oh, J. S., Ha, Y., An, S. S., Khan, M., Pennant, W. A., Kim, H. J., Yoon, D. H., Lee, M., and Kim, K. N. (2010). Hypoxia-preconditioned adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells increase the survival and gene expression of engineered neural stem cells in a spinal-cord injury model. Neurosci. Lett. 472, 215–219.
Hypoxia-preconditioned adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells increase the survival and gene expression of engineered neural stem cells in a spinal-cord injury model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXjt1ersLo%3D&md5=f52230c0f8e4bb195c03c57047519ea3CAS | 20153400PubMed |

Prigione, A., Fauler, B., Lurz, R., Lehrach, H., and Adjaye, J. (2010). The senescence-related mitochondrial/oxidative stress pathway is repressed in human induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cells 28, 721–733.
The senescence-related mitochondrial/oxidative stress pathway is repressed in human induced pluripotent stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXms1yisL0%3D&md5=4e2088bbbce30c4f448c3ff135aae76aCAS | 20201066PubMed |

Rathjen, J., Yeo, C., Yap, C., Tan, B. S., Rathjen, P. D., and Gardner, D. K. (2014). Culture environment regulates amino acid turnover and glucose utilisation in human ES cells. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 26, 703–716.
Culture environment regulates amino acid turnover and glucose utilisation in human ES cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhtVentbrF&md5=693f220e3cec1204cb1c41ffc8698f3dCAS | 23759283PubMed |

Rinaudo, P. F., Giritharan, G., Talbi, S., Dobson, A. T., and Schultz, R. M. (2006). Effects of oxygen tension on gene expression in preimplantation mouse embryos. Fertil. Steril. 86, 1265.e1–1265.e36.

Rodesch, F., Simon, P., Donner, C., and Jauniaux, E. (1992). Oxygen measurements in endometrial and trophoblastic tissues during early pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 80, 283–285.
| 1:STN:280:DyaK38zkt1equw%3D%3D&md5=ad0ba08dde8855a71f47b063bd08225bCAS | 1635745PubMed |

Roth, E., Oehler, R., Manhart, N., Exner, R., Wessner, B., Strasser, E., and Spittler, A. (2002). Regulative potential of glutamine – relation to glutathione metabolism. Nutrition 18, 217–221.
Regulative potential of glutamine – relation to glutathione metabolism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xhs1ylsL0%3D&md5=49e14d285e80c72a2271ec879dc814ddCAS | 11882392PubMed |

Schieke, S. M., Ma, M., Cao, L., McCoy, J. P., Liu, C., Hensel, N. F., Barrett, A. J., Boehm, M., and Finkel, T. (2008). Mitochondrial metabolism modulates differentiation and teratoma formation capacity in mouse embryonic stem cells. J. Biol. Chem. 283, 28 506–28 512.
Mitochondrial metabolism modulates differentiation and teratoma formation capacity in mouse embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht1ans7vK&md5=c0f4d838348df42ea88ac224aa2a4edeCAS |

Schindelin, J., Arganda-Carreras, I., Frise, E., Kaynig, V., Longair, M., Pietzsch, T., Preibisch, S., Rueden, C., Saalfeld, S., Schmid, B., Tinevez, J. Y., White, D. J., Hartenstein, V., Eliceiri, K., Tomancak, P., and Cardona, A. (2012). Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis. Nat. Methods 9, 676–682.
Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhtVKnurbJ&md5=5b0973c97ee537ca03e965b9bafba031CAS | 22743772PubMed |

Shyh-Chang, N., Locasale, J. W., Lyssiotis, C. A., Zheng, Y., Teo, R. Y., Ratanasirintrawoot, S., Zhang, J., Onder, T., Unternaehrer, J. J., Zhu, H., Asara, J. M., Daley, G. Q., and Cantley, L. C. (2013). Influence of threonine metabolism on S-adenosylmethionine and histone methylation. Science 339, 222–226.
Influence of threonine metabolism on S-adenosylmethionine and histone methylation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23118012PubMed |

Simon, P. (2003). Q-Gene: processing quantitative real-time RT-PCR data. Bioinformatics 19, 1439–1440.
Q-Gene: processing quantitative real-time RT-PCR data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXlsl2lsb0%3D&md5=75469b917528df5a49c4b9e770b07218CAS | 12874059PubMed |

Simon, M. C., and Keith, B. (2008). The role of oxygen availability in embryonic development and stem cell function. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 9, 285–296.
The role of oxygen availability in embryonic development and stem cell function.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjsFCksbk%3D&md5=50e85f74f5bcd9a48f2cabc90bfc1583CAS | 18285802PubMed |

Tan, B. S., Lonic, A., Morris, M. B., Rathjen, P. D., and Rathjen, J. (2011). The amino acid transporter SNAT2 mediates l-proline-induced differentiation of ES cells. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 300, C1270–C1279.
The amino acid transporter SNAT2 mediates l-proline-induced differentiation of ES cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXot1Cgtb4%3D&md5=4d6bcbf27947cb3732f9aae84532de1dCAS | 21346154PubMed |

Thompson, J. G., Simpson, A. C., Pugh, P. A., Donnelly, P. E., and Tervit, H. R. (1990). Effect of oxygen concentration on in vitro development of preimplantation sheep and cattle embryos. J. Reprod. Fertil. 89, 573–578.
Effect of oxygen concentration on in vitro development of preimplantation sheep and cattle embryos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXlsV2nsLk%3D&md5=533ad6b2154e9dab9429df040a76523bCAS | 2401984PubMed |

Vander Heiden, M. G., Cantley, L. C., and Thompson, C. B. (2009). Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science 324, 1029–1033.
Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXmtVKlsbg%3D&md5=3bd6a26bf65e4f988817583c3d1897e8CAS | 19460998PubMed |

Varum, S., Momcilovic, O., Castro, C., Ben-Yehudah, A., Ramalho-Santos, J., and Navara, C. S. (2009). Enhancement of human embryonic stem cell pluripotency through inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Stem Cell Res. 3, 142–156.
Enhancement of human embryonic stem cell pluripotency through inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhsFGmsb%2FL&md5=f0f5a5cb939d2528965a4d0bb6cb7020CAS | 19716358PubMed |

Varum, S., Rodrigues, A. S., Moura, M. B., Momcilovic, O., Easley, C. A. t., Ramalho-Santos, J., Van Houten, B., and Schatten, G. (2011). Energy metabolism in human pluripotent stem cells and their differentiated counterparts. PLoS ONE 6, e20914.
Energy metabolism in human pluripotent stem cells and their differentiated counterparts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXotVWgt7k%3D&md5=2270ff6abdedc53972fc5dad88003d8aCAS | 21698063PubMed |

Wale, P. L., and Gardner, D. K. (2010). Time-lapse analysis of mouse embryo development in oxygen gradients. Reprod. Biomed. Online 21, 402–410.
Time-lapse analysis of mouse embryo development in oxygen gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cfgtVGnsQ%3D%3D&md5=c8b0cfc40d09bd58ba706d0adfaf1bd1CAS | 20691637PubMed |

Wale, P. L., and Gardner, D. K. (2012). Oxygen regulates amino acid turnover and carbohydrate uptake during the preimplantation period of mouse embryo development. Biol. Reprod. 87, 24.
Oxygen regulates amino acid turnover and carbohydrate uptake during the preimplantation period of mouse embryo development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22553221PubMed |

Wang, D. W., Fermor, B., Gimble, J. M., Awad, H. A., and Guilak, F. (2005). Influence of oxygen on the proliferation and metabolism of adipose-derived adult stem cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 204, 184–191.
Influence of oxygen on the proliferation and metabolism of adipose-derived adult stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXkvF2qsL4%3D&md5=0434b04eb67e9ee5d8074476f6cc22c8CAS | 15754341PubMed |

Wang, J., Alexander, P., Wu, L., Hammer, R., Cleaver, O., and McKnight, S. L. (2009). Dependence of mouse embryonic stem cells on threonine catabolism. Science 325, 435–439.
Dependence of mouse embryonic stem cells on threonine catabolism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXovVCgtLY%3D&md5=3064d6f4f97bf36631b1549bc32178c7CAS | 19589965PubMed |

Washington, J. M., Rathjen, J., Felquer, F., Lonic, A., Bettess, M. D., Hamra, N., Semendric, L., Tan, B. S., Lake, J. A., Keough, R. A., Morris, M. B., and Rathjen, P. D. (2010). l-Proline induces differentiation of ES cells: a novel role for an amino acid in the regulation of pluripotent cells in culture. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 298, C982–C992.
l-Proline induces differentiation of ES cells: a novel role for an amino acid in the regulation of pluripotent cells in culture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmtlWjsrk%3D&md5=ccb87ca297f33538445b2530353578ddCAS | 20164384PubMed |

Westfall, S. D., Sachdev, S., Das, P., Hearne, L. B., Hannink, M., Roberts, R. M., and Ezashi, T. (2008). Identification of oxygen-sensitive transcriptional programs in human embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells Dev. 17, 869–882.
Identification of oxygen-sensitive transcriptional programs in human embryonic stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht1Slsb7O&md5=c18d6560d44666d5a81785c4f5515c3bCAS | 18811242PubMed |

Yoshida, Y., Takahashi, K., Okita, K., Ichisaka, T., and Yamanaka, S. (2009). Hypoxia enhances the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 5, 237–241.
Hypoxia enhances the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhsVCiurnI&md5=20656fbe658ca8b2467bcb16129a71c9CAS | 19716359PubMed |

Zachar, V., Prasad, S. M., Weli, S. C., Gabrielsen, A., Petersen, K., Petersen, M. B., and Fink, T. (2010). The effect of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) long-term normoxic and hypoxic cultures on the maintenance of pluripotency. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Anim. 46, 276–283.
The effect of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) long-term normoxic and hypoxic cultures on the maintenance of pluripotency.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20177991PubMed |

Zhang, J., Khvorostov, I., Hong, J. S., Oktay, Y., Vergnes, L., Nuebel, E., Wahjudi, P. N., Setoguchi, K., Wang, G., Do, A., Jung, H. J., McCaffery, J. M., Kurland, I. J., Reue, K., Lee, W. N., Koehler, C. M., and Teitell, M. A. (2011). UCP2 regulates energy metabolism and differentiation potential of human pluripotent stem cells. EMBO J. 30, 4860–4873.
UCP2 regulates energy metabolism and differentiation potential of human pluripotent stem cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVOitrvO&md5=cf8b11ce55c56bbe16188196f80517c5CAS | 22085932PubMed |

Zhou, W., Choi, M., Margineantu, D., Margaretha, L., Hesson, J., Cavanaugh, C., Blau, C. A., Horwitz, M. S., Hockenbery, D., Ware, C., and Ruohola-Baker, H. (2012). HIF1alpha-induced switch from bivalent to exclusively glycolytic metabolism during ESC-to-EpiSC/hESC transition. EMBO J. 31, 2103–2116.
HIF1alpha-induced switch from bivalent to exclusively glycolytic metabolism during ESC-to-EpiSC/hESC transition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xkt1GhsLo%3D&md5=85a92298ab4dd6a7fe2aac3337b7edc7CAS | 22446391PubMed |

Ziech, D., Franco, R., Pappa, A., and Panayiotidis, M. I. (2011). Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced genetic and epigenetic alterations in human carcinogenesis. Mutat. Res. 711, 167–173.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced genetic and epigenetic alterations in human carcinogenesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXmsVGgsrY%3D&md5=6e007d8e1bb7d0a88b6dd580d02ca713CAS | 21419141PubMed |