Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
REVIEW

A review on the effects of mycotoxins in dairy ruminants

I. Rodrigues
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

BIOMIN Singapore Pte Ltd, 3791 Jalan Bukit Merah #08-08, E-Centre@Redhill, 159471 Singapore. Email: ines.rodrigues@biomin.net

Animal Production Science 54(9) 1155-1165 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN13492
Submitted: 21 November 2013  Accepted: 19 May 2014   Published: 10 July 2014

Abstract

Mycotoxins are toxic chemical compounds of low molecular weight produced by moulds. Throughout the years, the resistance of ruminants to mycotoxins has been assumed to be an almost absolute fact and the negative effects of these metabolites have been largely neglected by dairy farmers. However, such resistance should not be taken for granted as ruminants are fed various feed materials which might contain several different mycotoxins and in some cases, grazing animals might consume other mycotoxins via pasture. Metabolisation of mycotoxins in the rumen is not equivalent to complete detoxification. Moreover, its potential degradation is highly dependent on rumen microflora stability and pH, which vary according to feed composition and to the direct antimicrobial activity of mycotoxins. Young animals, high-yielding cows and animals in the transition period should be given particular attention as they are more susceptible to the negative effects of these toxic metabolites. A brief overview on the occurrence of these toxic compounds in commodities commonly used in dairy feeds will set the scene for a review of their impacts on rumen function and rumen health, reproduction, feed intake and performance, carry-over into milk, liver toxicity and foot health/lameness and other metabolic disorders.

Additional keywords: carry-over, physiology.


References

Acosta Aragon Y, Rodrigues I, Hofstetter U, Binder EM (2011) Mycotoxins in silages: occurrence and prevention. Iranian Journal of Animal Science 1, 1–10.

Aldrich-Markham S, Pirelli G, Craig AM (2007) Endophyte toxins in grass seed fields and straw: effects on livestock. Available at http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/20568/em8598-e.pdf [Accessed 15 April 2014]

Applebaum RS, Brackett RE, Wiseman DW, Marth EH (1982) Responses of dairy cows to dietary aflatoxin: feed intake and yield, toxin content, and quality of milk of cows treated with pure and impure aflatoxin. Journal of Dairy Science 65, 1503–1508.
Responses of dairy cows to dietary aflatoxin: feed intake and yield, toxin content, and quality of milk of cows treated with pure and impure aflatoxin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XlsVehtLs%3D&md5=65fdaa6e1a81996099ca9e0f1602f41aCAS | 6815245PubMed |

Auerbach H, Oldenburg E, Weissbach F (1998) Incidence of Penicillium roqueforti and roquefortine C in silages. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 76, 565–572.
Incidence of Penicillium roqueforti and roquefortine C in silages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXivF2lurc%3D&md5=3ee81e515f5f0b291059085f79ac896bCAS |

Binder EM, Tan LM, Chin LJ, Handl J, Richard J (2007) Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients. Animal Feed Science and Technology 137, 265–282.
Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXpt1Kls7w%3D&md5=845da2b562d6b5747572d512c295f91bCAS |

Braun JP, Benard P, Burgat V, Rico AG (1983) Gamma glutamyl transferase in domestic animals. Veterinary Research Communications 6, 77–90.
Gamma glutamyl transferase in domestic animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL3sXhsFymur4%3D&md5=b6c9eda75eaf5b9b4e80c2466aaa0becCAS | 6135267PubMed |

Browning R, Schrick FN, Thompson FN, Wakefield T (2001) Effect of an acute ergotamine challenge on reproductive hormones in follicular phase heifers and progestin-treated cows. Animal Reproduction Science 66, 135–149.
Effect of an acute ergotamine challenge on reproductive hormones in follicular phase heifers and progestin-treated cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXjtlCju7g%3D&md5=a82c79eb0815dbd265ea0652c5d4d798CAS | 11348777PubMed |

Burke JM, Rorie RW, Piper EL, Jackson WG (2001) Reproductive responses to grazing endophyte-infected tall fescue by postpartum beef cows. Theriogenology 56, 357–369.
Reproductive responses to grazing endophyte-infected tall fescue by postpartum beef cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3Mvjt1ylsg%3D%3D&md5=43baff1c86c5f53bb900e7d17ee71d1bCAS | 11480626PubMed |

Caloni F, Spotti M, Auerbach H, Op den Camp H, Gremmels JF, Pompa G (2000) In vitro metabolism of fumonisin B1 by ruminal microflora. Veterinary Research Communications 24, 379–387.
In vitro metabolism of fumonisin B1 by ruminal microflora.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3cvmt1GmtA%3D%3D&md5=1dfdd1b48fc4c41e13d8213fda39522eCAS | 11014607PubMed |

CAST (2003) ‘Mycotoxins: risks in plant, animal, and human systems.’ (Council of Agricultural Science and Technology: Ames, IA)

Casteel SW, Rowe LD, Bailey EM, Fiske RA, Bridges CW (1988) Experimentally induced photosensitization in cattle with Cooperia pedunculata. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 30, 101–104.

Casteel SW, Rottinghaus GE, Johnson GC, Wicklow DT (1995) Liver disease in cattle induced by consumption of moldy hay. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 37, 248–251.

Charmley E, Trenholm HL, Thompson BK, Vudathala D, Nicholson JW, Prelusky DB, Charmley LL (1993) Influence of level of deoxynivalenol in the diet of dairy cows on feed intake, milk production, and its composition. Journal of Dairy Science 76, 3580–3587.
Influence of level of deoxynivalenol in the diet of dairy cows on feed intake, milk production, and its composition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXisFCk&md5=6c71bbac7fdcf39beff94bb49e1d9c4eCAS | 8270701PubMed |

Cheli F, Campagnoli A, Dell’Orto V (2013) Fungal populations and mycotoxins in silages: from occurrence to analysis. Animal Feed Science and Technology 183, 1–16.
Fungal populations and mycotoxins in silages: from occurrence to analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXmsFagsb4%3D&md5=880f4ff6c4f8e9b20aa151d3422c8f95CAS |

Cook WO, Richard JL, Osweiler GD, Trampel DW (1986) Clinical and pathologic changes in acute bovine aflatoxicosis: rumen motility and tissue and fluid concentrations of aflatoxins B1 and M1. American Journal of Veterinary Research 47, 1817–1825.

Coppock RW, Mostrom MS, Sparling CG, Jacobsen B, Ross SC (1990) Apparent zearalenone intoxication in a dairy herd from feeding spoiled acid-treated corn. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 32, 246–248.

Dänicke S, Gadeken D, Ueberschar KH, Meyer U, Scholz H (2002) Effects of Fusarium toxin contaminated wheat and of a detoxifying agent on performance of growing bulls, on nutrient digestibility in wethers and on the carry over of zearalenone. Archiv fur Tierernahrung 56, 245–261.
Effects of Fusarium toxin contaminated wheat and of a detoxifying agent on performance of growing bulls, on nutrient digestibility in wethers and on the carry over of zearalenone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12462910PubMed |

Di Menna ME, Smith BL, Miles CO (2009) A history of facial eczema (pithomycotoxicosis) research. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 52, 345–376.
A history of facial eczema (pithomycotoxicosis) research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhvFaguro%3D&md5=7f502621355ca31454808c1ca313505dCAS |

Diätverordnung (2005) ‘Verordnung über Diätetische Lebensmittel (Diätverordnung) i.d.F. der Bekanntmachung v. 28. April 2005, BGBI. I S.1161.’ (German Governmental Regulation)

Donkin SS, University of Florida Dairy Extension (Ed.) (2012) ‘The role of liver metabolism during transition on postpartum health and performance, 2012 Florida Ruminant Nutrition Symposium Proceedings.’ (University of Florida, FL)

Driehuis F, Spanjer MC, Scholten JM, te Giffel MC (2008a) Occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs of dairy cows and estimation of total dietary intakes. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 4261–4271.
Occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs of dairy cows and estimation of total dietary intakes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtlajtL7K&md5=158235bdf0265ee02a923fc7948a426dCAS | 18946131PubMed |

Driehuis F, Spanjer MC, Scholten JM, Te Giffel MC (2008b) Occurrence of mycotoxins in maize, grass and wheat silage for dairy cattle in the Netherlands. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B. Surveillance 1, 41–50.
Occurrence of mycotoxins in maize, grass and wheat silage for dairy cattle in the Netherlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtVyrsLvO&md5=6b2be65d83adc0d7b548f4ae20ea3a2fCAS |

EC (2003) Collection of occurrence data of Fusarium toxins in food and assessment of dietary intake by the population of EU Member States. European Commission – Directorate General Health and Consumer Protection. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/scoop/task3210.pdf. [Accessed 15 April 2014]

EC (2006) Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union 364, 5–24.

EFSA (2006) Opinion on the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the Commission related to ochratoxin A in food. The EFSA Journal 365, 1–56.

Engel VG, Hagemeister H (1978) Untersuchungenueber den verblieb von aflatoxin B1 im Verdaaundtarkt von Kuehen. Milchwissenschaft. Milk Science International 33, 21–23.

Escoula L (1992) Patulin production by Penicillium granulatum and inhibition of ruminal flora. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology 11, 45–48.

Fink-Gremmels J (2008a) Mycotoxins in cattle feeds and carry-over to dairy milk: a review. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A. Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment 25, 172–180.
Mycotoxins in cattle feeds and carry-over to dairy milk: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXitFKhsb4%3D&md5=dfea94ddd1a38eb6dc298604e4e0e803CAS |

Fink-Gremmels J (2008b) The role of mycotoxins in the health and performance of dairy cows. Veterinary Journal 176, 84–92.
The role of mycotoxins in the health and performance of dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjs1Srtro%3D&md5=4264f8cdb6a8ddfaf9d907bd3363f7b8CAS |

Galvano F, Pietri A, Bertuzzi T, Gagliardi L, Ciotti S, Luisi S, Bognanno M, La Fauci L, Iacopino AM, Nigro F, Li Volti G, Vanella L, Giammanco G, Tina GL, Gazzolo D (2008) Maternal dietary habits and mycotoxin occurrence in human mature milk. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 52, 496–501.
Maternal dietary habits and mycotoxin occurrence in human mature milk.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXltlensrs%3D&md5=c692dc4560925d8e57bbfe5136321e67CAS |

Griessler K, Rodrigues I, Handl J, Hofstetter U (2010) Occurrence of mycotoxins in southern Europe. World Mycotoxin Journal 3, 301–309.
Occurrence of mycotoxins in southern Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXht1SqtbzJ&md5=acf3635dae7d492bda386bac142fbd6eCAS |

Gurbay A, Girgin G, Sabuncuoglu SA, Sahin G, Yurdakok M, Yigit S, Tekinalp G (2010) Ochratoxin A: is it present in breast milk samples obtained from mothers from Ankara, Turkey? Journal of Applied Toxicology. JAT 30, 329–333.

Heidtmann-Bemvenuti RL Mendes GL Scaglioni PT Badiale-Furlong E Souza-Soares LA 2011 Biochemistry and metabolism of mycotoxins: a review. African Journal of Food Science 5 861 869

Kennedy DG, Hewitt SA, McEvoy JD, Currie JW, Cannavan A, Blanchflower WJ, Elliot CT (1998) Zeranol is formed from Fusarium spp. toxins in cattle in vivo. Food Additives and Contaminants 15, 393–400.
Zeranol is formed from Fusarium spp. toxins in cattle in vivo.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjt1CgsLw%3D&md5=148131b4aa67c4d63841bcd44db2da0eCAS | 9764208PubMed |

Kiessling KH, Pettersson H, Sandholm K, Olsen M (1984) Metabolism of aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone, and three trichothecenes by intact rumen fluid, rumen protozoa, and rumen bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 47, 1070–1073.

Kurmanov IA (1977) Fusariotoxicosis in cattle and sheep. In ‘Mycotoxic fungi, mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses’. (Eds TD Wyllie, LG Morehouse) pp. 85–110. (Marcel Dekker: New York)

Marczuk J, Obremski K, Lutnicki K, Gajecka M, Gajecki M (2012) Zearalenone and deoxynivalenol mycotoxicosis in dairy cattle herds. Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences 15, 365–372.
Zearalenone and deoxynivalenol mycotoxicosis in dairy cattle herds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsVansb%2FJ&md5=7368044d38d37f19da094fdd20562048CAS | 22844716PubMed |

Mathur S, Constable PD, Eppley RM, Waggoner AL, Tumbleson ME, Haschek WM (2001) Fumonisin B1 is hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in milk-fed calves. Toxicological Sciences 60, 385–396.
Fumonisin B1 is hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in milk-fed calves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXitlWisLw%3D&md5=71d0ef83bb459bd8824c3d61746d0ef2CAS | 11248152PubMed |

May HD, Wu Q, Blake CK (2000) Effects of the Fusarium spp. mycotoxins fusaric acid and deoxynivalenol on the growth of Ruminococcus albus and Methanobrevibacter ruminantium. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 46, 692–699.
Effects of the Fusarium spp. mycotoxins fusaric acid and deoxynivalenol on the growth of Ruminococcus albus and Methanobrevibacter ruminantium.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlsFOks7s%3D&md5=a044b8634a670cbeae58bd6bbf6b9295CAS | 10941514PubMed |

Melo dos Santos V, Dorner JW, Carreira F (2003) Isolation and toxigenicity of Aspergillus fumigatus from moldy silage. Mycopathologia 156, 133–138.
Isolation and toxigenicity of Aspergillus fumigatus from moldy silage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXit1yqurw%3D&md5=43774340c8e92fd9084cf5f6cc167ed7CAS |

Minervini F, Dell’Aquila ME, Maritato F, Minoia P, Visconti A (2001) Toxic effects of the mycotoxin zearalenone and its derivatives on in vitro maturation of bovine oocytes and 17 beta-estradiol levels in mural granulosa cell cultures. Toxicology In Vitro 15, 489–495.
Toxic effects of the mycotoxin zearalenone and its derivatives on in vitro maturation of bovine oocytes and 17 beta-estradiol levels in mural granulosa cell cultures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXmvVyiur8%3D&md5=422d3af43ba379d6ab53653a40ec61b3CAS | 11566582PubMed |

Mobashar M, Hummel J, Blank R, Sudekum KH (2010) Ochratoxin A in ruminants – a review on its degradation by gut microbes and effects on animals. Toxins (Basel) 2, 809–839.
Ochratoxin A in ruminants – a review on its degradation by gut microbes and effects on animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXlsVymtrw%3D&md5=fd64712df4f2d660d9c171f9c138c8d3CAS | 22069612PubMed |

Mohammadi H (2011) A review of aflatoxin M1, milk, and milk products. In ‘Aflatoxins – biochemistry and molecular biology’. (Ed. DRG Guevara-Gonzalez) pp. 397–414. (Intek: Rijeka, Croatia)

Monlux AW, Glenn BL, Panciera RJ (1963) Bovine hepatogenous photosensitivity associated with the feeding of alfalfa hay. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 142, 989–994.

Morgavi DP, Boudra H, Jouany JP, Graviou D (2003) Prevention of patulin toxicity on rumen microbial fermentation by SH-containing reducing agents. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51, 6906–6910.
Prevention of patulin toxicity on rumen microbial fermentation by SH-containing reducing agents.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXnsl2mtro%3D&md5=18c6ecc330a58718eaf36f3c8dec468cCAS | 14582994PubMed |

Oldenburg E (1998) Mykotoxine im Grundfutter und ihre Bedeutung im Carry-over-Geschehen. In ‘Kreisläufe erwün-schter und unerwünschter Stoffe – ihre Bedeutung in der Nahrungskette, Informationsveranstaltung der Arbeitsgruppe ‘Carry over unerwünschter Stoffe in Futtermitteln’’. (Ed. Lu Forsten) pp. 19–31. (Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaftsverlag: Münster, Germany)

Ozsoy S, Altunatmaz K, Horoz H, Kaskc G, Alkan S, Bilal T (2005) The relationship between lameness, fertility and aflatoxin in a dairy cattle herd. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences 29, 981–986.

Pirestani A, Toghyani M (2010) The effect of aflatoxin levels on milk production, reproduction and lameness in high production Holstein cows. African Journal of Biotechnology 9, 7905–7908.

Pitt JI (1989) An introduction to mycotoxins. In ‘Mycotoxin prevention and control in foodgrains’. (Eds RL Semple, AS Frio, PA Hicks, JV Lozare) (A collaborative publication of the UNDP/FAO Regional Network Inter-Country Cooperation on Preharvest Technology and Quality Control in foodgrains (REGNET) and the ASEAN Grain Postharvest Programme: Bangkok, Thailand) Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5036e/x5036E04.htm#An%20introduction%20to%20mycotoxins [Accessed 15 April 2014] http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/20568/em8598-e.pdf

Ray AC, Abbitt B, Cotter SR, Murphy MJ, Reagor JC, Robinson RM, West JE, Whitford HW (1986) Bovine abortion and death associated with consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated peanuts. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 188, 1187–1188.

Reed KFM, Nie ZN, Walker LV, Kearney G (2011) Fluctuations in the concentration of ergovaline and lolitrem B produced by the wild-type endophyte (Neotyphodium lolii) in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) pasture. Animal Production Science 51, 1098–1108.
Fluctuations in the concentration of ergovaline and lolitrem B produced by the wild-type endophyte (Neotyphodium lolii) in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsFertb3L&md5=47fdb694c23ec6617f5e3356a473968aCAS |

Richard JL (2012) Mycotoxins – an overview. In ‘Guide to mycotoxins featuring mycotoxin risk management in animal production’. (Ed. EM Binder) pp. 1–47. (Anytime Publishing Services: Leicestershire, UK)

Richard JL, Meerdink G, Maragos CM, Tumbleson M, Bordson G, Rice LG, Ross PF (1996) Absence of detectable fumonisins in the milk of cows fed Fusarium proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg culture material. Mycopathologia 133, 123–126.
Absence of detectable fumonisins in the milk of cows fed Fusarium proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg culture material.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xls1aksLg%3D&md5=190f9229dbd7a1d74d666d1eee06c87aCAS | 8751831PubMed |

Rodrigues I, Chin LJ (2012) A comprehensive survey on the occurrence of mycotoxins in maize dried distillers’ grain and solubles sourced worldwide. World Mycotoxin Journal 5, 83–88.
A comprehensive survey on the occurrence of mycotoxins in maize dried distillers’ grain and solubles sourced worldwide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xjsleis7g%3D&md5=b555e7fefd7e5dff6c91bbbfb2bbab42CAS |

Rodrigues I, Naehrer K (2012) A three-year survey on the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs and feed. Toxins (Basel) 4, 663–675.
A three-year survey on the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs and feed.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsVakt7jM&md5=caa7f84f1ddf0de8aeb16edcb3fd02baCAS | 23105974PubMed |

Rodrigues I, Handl J, Binder EM (2011) Mycotoxin occurrence in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients sourced in the Middle East and Africa. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B: Surveillance 4, 168–179.
Mycotoxin occurrence in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients sourced in the Middle East and Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXht12qsbzP&md5=3b33cf46d5eb9126170d21b14b0e3806CAS |

Rossi F, Righi F, Fuochi S, Quarantelli A (2009) Effects of mycotoxins on fertility of dairy cows. Annali della Facoltá di Medicina Veterinaria di Parma 29, 153–166.

Schumann B, Lebzien P, Ueberschar KH, Spilke J, Holtershinken M, Danicke S (2008) Effects of the level of feed intake and ergot contaminated concentrate on ruminal fermentation and on physiological parameters in cows. Mycotoxin Research 24, 57–72.
Effects of the level of feed intake and ergot contaminated concentrate on ruminal fermentation and on physiological parameters in cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsVKqtrvK&md5=ca367b1a562a7ed9eccbb2dbba5594f1CAS | 23604682PubMed |

Scudamore KA, Livesey CT (1998) Occurrence and significance of mycotoxins in forage crops and silage: a review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 77, 1–17.
Occurrence and significance of mycotoxins in forage crops and silage: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjt1Gmsbk%3D&md5=17406ff3371788967015fff60ba3df3bCAS |

Seeling K, Danicke S, Ueberschar KH, Lebzien P, Flachowsky G (2005) On the effects of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat and the feed intake level on the metabolism and carry over of zearalenone in dairy cows. Food Additives and Contaminants 22, 847–855.
On the effects of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat and the feed intake level on the metabolism and carry over of zearalenone in dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtV2htLjI&md5=06819809c1edbaf98a26245ff1dd60a1CAS | 16192071PubMed |

Seeling K, Lebzien P, Danicke S, Spilke J, Sudekum KH, Flachowsky G (2006) Effects of level of feed intake and Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat on rumen fermentation as well as on blood and milk parameters in cows. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 90, 103–115.
Effects of level of feed intake and Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat on rumen fermentation as well as on blood and milk parameters in cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xktlylurw%3D&md5=923897e12e43c7553d7963ce6dca0d9dCAS | 16519755PubMed |

Speijers GJ, Speijers MH (2004) Combined toxic effects of mycotoxins. Toxicology Letters 153, 91–98.
Combined toxic effects of mycotoxins.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXntlGltL4%3D&md5=e4573b57402b95f537ac12c22de1ca99CAS | 15342085PubMed |

Streit E, Schatzmayr G, Tassis P, Tzika E, Marin D, Taranu I, Tabuc C, Nicolau A, Aprodu I, Puel O, Oswald IP (2012) Current situation of mycotoxin contamination and co-occurrence in animal feed – focus on Europe. Toxins (Basel) 4, 788–809.
Current situation of mycotoxin contamination and co-occurrence in animal feed – focus on Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsFCisrfF&md5=9e95a3bfcae90aee75d8546e3c3e04f2CAS | 23162698PubMed |

Streit E, Naehrer K, Rodrigues I, Schatzmayr G (2013) Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed raw materials worldwide: long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 93, 2892–2899.
Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed raw materials worldwide: long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhtVShtL7O&md5=f24bf013d63a18d6d0c02f8abe50e8acCAS | 23670211PubMed |

Takagi M, Uno S, Kokushi E, Shiga S, Mukai S, Kuriyagawa T, Takagaki K, Hasunuma H, Matsumoto D, Okamoto K, Shahada F, Chenga T, Deguchi E, Fink-Gremmels J (2011) Measurement of urinary zearalenone concentrations for monitoring natural feed contamination in cattle herds: on-farm trials. Journal of Animal Science 89, 287–296.
Measurement of urinary zearalenone concentrations for monitoring natural feed contamination in cattle herds: on-farm trials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXotl2ruw%3D%3D&md5=fd7a46b335b91d90c20680d8e1f60539CAS | 20852083PubMed |

Towers NR (1992) Zearalenone induced infertility in sheep. Proceedings of the Society of Sheep and Beef Cattle Veterinarians of the New Zealand Veterinary Association. (The Society of Sheep and Beef Cattle Veterinarians of the New Zealand Veterinary Association, New Zealand)

Towers NR, Sposen JM, Webber W (1995) Zearalenone metabolites in cycling and non-cycling cows. In ‘Toxicology and food safety’. (Ed. Toxicology and Food Safety Research Group, Ruakura Research Centre) pp. 46–47. (Toxicology and Food Safety Research Group, Ruakura Research Centre: Hamilton, New Zealand)

Upadhaya SD, Sung HG, Lee CH, Lee SY, Kim SW, Cho KJ, Ha JK (2009a) Comparative study on the aflatoxin B1 degradation ability of rumen fluid from Holstein steers and Korean native goats. Journal of Veterinary Science (Suwon-si, Korea) 10, 29–34.
Comparative study on the aflatoxin B1 degradation ability of rumen fluid from Holstein steers and Korean native goats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Upadhaya SD, Sung HG, Lee CH, Lee SY, Kim SW, Cho KJ, Ha JK (2009b) Comparative study on the aflatoxin B1 degradation ability of rumen fluid from Holstein steers and Korean native goats. Journal of Veterinary Science (Suwon-si, Korea) 10, 29–34.
Comparative study on the aflatoxin B1 degradation ability of rumen fluid from Holstein steers and Korean native goats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Upadhaya SD, Park MA, Ha JK (2010) Mycotoxins and their biotransformation in the rumen: a review. Asian–Australasian Journal of Animal Science 23, 1250–1260.

Völkel I (2011) The carry-over of mycotoxins in products of animal origin with special regard to its implications for the European food safety legislation. Food and Nutrition Sciences 02, 852–867.
The carry-over of mycotoxins in products of animal origin with special regard to its implications for the European food safety legislation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waller JC (2009) Endophyte effects on cattle. In ‘Tall fescue for the twenty-first century’. (Eds HA Fribourg, DB Hannaway, CP West) pp. 289–310. (American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI)

Wannemacher RW, Wiener S (1997) Trichothecene mycotoxins. In ‘Medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare’. (Eds FR Sidell, ET Takafugi, DR Franz) pp. 655–676. (Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army, Washington, DC)

Weaver GA, Kurtz HJ, Behrens JC, Robison TS, Seguin BE, Bates FY, Mirocha CJ (1986a) Effect of zearalenone on dairy cows. American Journal of Veterinary Research 47, 1826–1828.

Weaver GA, Kurtz HJ, Behrens JC, Robison TS, Seguin BE, Bates FY, Mirocha CJ (1986b) Effect of zearalenone on the fertility of virgin dairy heifers. American Journal of Veterinary Research 47, 1395–1397.

Whitlow LW, Hagler WM Jr (2005) Mycotoxins: a review of dairy concerns, mid-south ruminant Nutrition conference. Available at https://www.sdstate.edu/vs/extension/drought/upload/Whitlow-Mycotoxins-MSRNC-2005.pdf [Accessed 3 June 2014]

Whitlow LW, Hagler WM Jr (2010) Mycotoxin effects in dairy cattle. Available at http://manitowoc.uwex.edu/files/2010/11/Mycotoxins.pdf [Accessed 15 April 2014]

WHO (2012) ‘Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants.’ (World Health Organization (WHO)). Available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789241660655_eng.pdf.