Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
REVIEW

Challenges in ration formulation in pasture-based milk production systems

J. L. Jacobs
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

Agriculture Research and Development, Department of Environment and Primary Industries, 78 Henna Street, Warrnambool, Vic. 3280, Australia. Email: joe.jacobs@depi.vic.gov.au

Animal Production Science 54(9) 1130-1140 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN14463
Submitted: 1 April 2014  Accepted: 13 June 2014   Published: 23 July 2014

Abstract

The profitability of temperate dairy systems in southern Australia and New Zealand is underpinned by the efficient use of the home-grown feed-base and purchased supplements. While there are well established principles on which to devise nutritionally balanced rations for ruminants, it is evident that in grazing systems the variable supply of nutrients from forage often results in suboptimal performance compared with predicted responses. This review discusses the key factors likely to directly affect responses to supplementation in grazing systems, namely pasture supply, nutritive characteristics and intake, feeding systems, substitution, associative effects and nutrient synchrony. Intake is the primary driver for metabolisable energy (ME) and nutrient supply and uncertainties on the actual ME and nutrients supplied by pasture will remain due to variability within and between pasture types and within paddocks. It is suggested that improvements in ration formulation will require a better understanding of the kinetics of intake and digestion within the rumen and of nutrients supplied to the tissues from grazed pasture with and without supplements. Research which clearly elucidates which mechanism or mechanisms determine substitution rates with concentrate and forage supplements would be valuable. Such knowledge could also be used to develop feeding strategies that result in a reduction in the degree of substitution and, in turn, lead to higher DM and ME intake compared with existing feeding practices. This in turn would lead to a better understanding of associative effects and nutrient synchrony with benefits in better design of rations and feed-use efficiency.

Additional keywords: associative effects, dry matter intake, metabolisable energy, nutrient synchrony, substitution.


References

Auldist MJ, Marett LC, Greenwood JS, Hannah M, Jacobs JL, Wales WJ (2013) Effects of different strategies for feeding supplements on milk production responses in cows grazing a restricted pasture allowance. Journal of Dairy Science 96, 1218–1231.
Effects of different strategies for feeding supplements on milk production responses in cows grazing a restricted pasture allowance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xhsl2isrrP&md5=3f0cf33e04e2007285eff642ac64d59dCAS | 23219117PubMed |

Auldist MJ, Marett LC, Greenwood JS, Wright MM, Hannah M, Jacobs JL, Wales WJ (2014) Replacing wheat with canola meal in a partial mixed ration increases the milk production response of cows grazing at a restricted pasture allowance in spring. Animal Production Science 54, 869–878.

Bargo F, Muller LD, Varga GA, Delahoy JE, Cassidy TW (2002a) Performance of high producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations. Journal of Dairy Science 85, 2948–2963.
Performance of high producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xptlagt74%3D&md5=dd9bb77a8f9f22bdb1c3c5c0576778dfCAS | 12487461PubMed |

Bargo F, Muller LD, Varga GA, Delahoy JE, Cassidy TW (2002b) Ruminal digestion and fermentation of high-producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations. Journal of Dairy Science 85, 2964–2973.
Ruminal digestion and fermentation of high-producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xptlagt78%3D&md5=88d0d40b7f9a43f2d0323c770c6f7cc6CAS | 12487462PubMed |

Bargo F, Muller LD, Kolver ES, Delahoy JE (2003) Production and digestion of supplemented dairy cows on pasture. Journal of Dairy Science 86, 1–42.
Production and digestion of supplemented dairy cows on pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhtlCks7s%3D&md5=dc52defaad13a5a0696cab2dbc973ee5CAS | 12613846PubMed |

Baudracco J, Lopez-Villalobos N, Holmes CW, MacDonald KA (2010) Effects of stocking rate, supplementation, genotype and their interactions on grazing dairy systems: a review. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 53, 109–133.
Effects of stocking rate, supplementation, genotype and their interactions on grazing dairy systems: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Calsamiglia S, Ferret A, Reynolds CK, Kristensen NB, van Vuuren AM (2010) Strategies for optimising nitrogen use by ruminants. Animal 4, 1184–1196.
Strategies for optimising nitrogen use by ruminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmvVajsbs%3D&md5=c855eff39bc4a1efd12253f182e85289CAS | 22444616PubMed |

Chapman DF, Kenny SN, Beca D, Johnson IR (2008) pasture and forage crop systems for non-irrigated dairy farms in southern Australia. 1. Physical production and economic performance. Agricultural Systems 97, 108–125.
pasture and forage crop systems for non-irrigated dairy farms in southern Australia. 1. Physical production and economic performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapman DF, Cullen BR, Johnson IR, Beca D (2009) Interannual variation in pasture growth rate in Australia and New Zealand dairy regions and its consequences for system management. Animal Production Science 49, 1071–1079.
Interannual variation in pasture growth rate in Australia and New Zealand dairy regions and its consequences for system management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapman DF, Beca D, Cullen B, Hill J, Tharmaraj J, Jacobs JL (2014) Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 4. Economic performance. Animal Production Science 54, 256–262.
Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 4. Economic performance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXitVynsrs%3D&md5=410a676457fea37e3b1d2aaaa0c552acCAS |

Clark D, Malcolm B, Jacobs J (2013) Dairying in the Antipodes: recent past, near prospects. Animal Production Science 53, 882–893.
Dairying in the Antipodes: recent past, near prospects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cohen DC, Doyle PT, Stockdale CR, Wales WJ (2000) Pasture allowance x pasture intake relationships: Victorian and overseas data. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 13 Vol. B, 119

Dairy NZ (2012) ‘New Zealand dairy statistics.’ (DairyNZ Ltd: Hamilton, New Zealand)

Dalley DE, Gardner G (2012) Pasture growth and quality on West Coast dairy farms. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 74, 231–236.

Dalley DE, Geddes T (2012) Pasture growth and quality on Southland and Otago dairy farms. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 74, 237–241.

Dalley DE, Roche JR, Grainger C, Moate PJ (1999) Dry matter intake, nutrient selection and milk production of dairy cows grazing rainfed perennial pastures at different herbage allowances in spring. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39, 923–931.
Dry matter intake, nutrient selection and milk production of dairy cows grazing rainfed perennial pastures at different herbage allowances in spring.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

De Ruiter JM, Hanson R, Hay AS, Armstrong KW, Harrison-Kirk RD (2002) Whole crop cereals for grazing and silage: balancing quality and quantity. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association. 64, 181–189.

Department of Primary Industries (2012) ‘Dairy industry farm monitor project: summary of results 11/12.’ (The State of Victoria, Department of Primary Industries: Melbourne)

Dharma S, Shafron W, Oliver M (2012) ‘Australian dairy: farm technology and management practices 2010–11.’ (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences: Canberra)

Dillon P, Roche JR, Shalloo L, Horan B (2005) Optimising financial return from grazing in temperate pastures. In ‘Utilisation of grazed grass in temperate animal systems. Proceedings of a satellite workshop of the XXth international grassland congress, Cork, Ireland’. (Ed. JJ Murphy) pp. 131–148. (Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands)

Dixon RM, Stockdale CR (1999) Associative effects between forages and grains: consequences for feed utilisation. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 757–773.
Associative effects between forages and grains: consequences for feed utilisation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Doyle PT, Francis SA, Stockdale CR (2005) Associative effects between feeds when concentrate supplements are fed to grazing dairy cows: a review of likely impacts on metabolisable energy supply. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 56, 1315–1329.
Associative effects between feeds when concentrate supplements are fed to grazing dairy cows: a review of likely impacts on metabolisable energy supply.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fariña SR, Garcia SC, Fulkerson WJ (2011) A complementary forage system whole-farm study: forage utilisation and milk production. Animal Production Science 51, 460–470.
A complementary forage system whole-farm study: forage utilisation and milk production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gabel M, Pieper B, Friedel K, Radke M, Hagemann A, Voight J, Kuhla S (2003) Influence of nutrition level on digestibility in high yielding cows and effects on energy evaluation systems. Journal of Dairy Science 86, 3992–3998.
Influence of nutrition level on digestibility in high yielding cows and effects on energy evaluation systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhtVWgs7fO&md5=f7195f084f2ab0f45567de6d3fa09e2fCAS | 14740837PubMed |

Garcia SC, Jacobs JL, Woodard SL, Clark DA (2007) Complementary forage rotation systems: a review of recent developments. In ‘Proceedings of the 3rd Australasian dairy science symposium 2007: meeting the challenges for pasture-based dairying’. (Eds DF Chapman, DA Clark, KL Macmillan, DP Nation) pp. 221–239. (National Dairy Alliance: Melbourne)

Grainger C (1992) Testing of the ‘Larcombe’ farm model for dryland and irrigated dairy farms. DAV143: Final report to DRDC. Department of Food and Agriculture, Ellinbank, Vic.

Granzin BD (2004) Effects of supplement grain type and level of feeding on the milk production of early-lactation Holstein-Friesian cows grazing temperate and tropical pastures. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 44, 735–743.
Effects of supplement grain type and level of feeding on the milk production of early-lactation Holstein-Friesian cows grazing temperate and tropical pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Greenwood JS, Auldist MJ, Marett LC, Hannah MC, Jacobs JL, Wales WJ (2014) Ruminal pH and whole-tract digestibility in dairy cows consuming fresh cut herbage plus concentrates and conserved forage fed either separately or as a partial mixed ration. Animal Production Science 54, 1056–1063.

Hall MB, Huntington GB (2008) Nutrient synchrony: sound in theory, elusive in practice. Journal of Animal Science 86, E287–E292.
Nutrient synchrony: sound in theory, elusive in practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1c3lsVyqsQ%3D%3D&md5=8346c56aa1757321fdca82e0a5b7a36fCAS | 17965333PubMed |

Heard JW, Cohen DC, Doyle PT, Wales WJ, Stockdale CR (2004) Diet check – a tactical decision support tool for feeding decisions with grazing dairy cows. Animal Feed Science and Technology 112, 177–194.
Diet check – a tactical decision support tool for feeding decisions with grazing dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heard JW, Francis SA, Doyle PT (2006) Nutritive characteristics of annual species in irrigated pasture in northern Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, 1015–1022.
Nutritive characteristics of annual species in irrigated pasture in northern Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmsFWmsLg%3D&md5=8cff8c634b8313a522b4d71ea6126c3eCAS |

Hill J, Chapman DF, Tharmaraj J, Jacobs JL, Cullen B (2014) Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 3. Milk production and composition, body weight and body condition score. Animal Production Science 54, 247–255.
Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 3. Milk production and composition, body weight and body condition score.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXitVyns7w%3D&md5=12fa1ae04bfc453ff75eafa456ccd837CAS |

Ho CKM (2010) Profitable irrigated dairy farming systems: exploring efficiencies in feeding systems with decreasing water availability. PhD Thesis, University of Melbourne.

Ho CKM, Newman M, Dalley DE, Little S, Wales WJ (2013) Performance, return and risk of different dairy systems in Australia and New Zealand. Animal Production Science 53, 894–906.
Performance, return and risk of different dairy systems in Australia and New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jacobs JL, McKenzie FR (2003) ‘A target driven approach to increase forage production and utilisation in southern dairy systems.’ (Department of Primary Industries Victoria: Warrnambool, Vic.)

Jacobs JL, Ward GN (2011) The effect of nitrogen application on dry matter yields, nutritive characteristics and mineral content of summer active forage crops in southern Australia. Animal Production Science 51, 77–86.
The effect of nitrogen application on dry matter yields, nutritive characteristics and mineral content of summer active forage crops in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jacobs JL, McKenzie FR, Ward GN (1999) Changes in the botanical composition and nutritive characteristics of pasture, and nutrient selection by dairy cows grazing rainfed pastures in western Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39, 419–428.
Changes in the botanical composition and nutritive characteristics of pasture, and nutrient selection by dairy cows grazing rainfed pastures in western Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keim JP, Anrique R (2011) Nutritional strategies to improve nitrogen use efficiency by grazing dairy cows. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 71, 623–633.
Nutritional strategies to improve nitrogen use efficiency by grazing dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kellaway R, Harrington T (2004) ‘Feeding concentrates. Supplements for dairy cows.’ (Landlinks: Melbourne.)

Kellaway RC, Tassel RJ, Havilah E, Sriskandarajah N, Andrews A (1993) Nutrient balance in the diet of grazing dairy cows. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 423–430.
Nutrient balance in the diet of grazing dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kolver ES, Muller LD (1998) Performance and nutrient intake of high producing Holstein cows consuming pasture or a total mixed ration. Journal of Dairy Science 81, 1403–1411.
Performance and nutrient intake of high producing Holstein cows consuming pasture or a total mixed ration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjsVyjsrs%3D&md5=e46c72bdf8f3516012abaa31ce8d10a8CAS | 9621244PubMed |

Leaver JD (1985) Milk production from grazed temperate grassland. The Journal of Dairy Research 52, 313–344.
Milk production from grazed temperate grassland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL2M3jsFSltA%3D%3D&md5=768083715ef4e2866db61ec9299a66c8CAS | 3891803PubMed |

Leddin CM, Stockdale CR, Hill J, Heard JW, Doyle PT (2009) Increasing amounts of crushed wheat fed with pasture hay reduced dietary fiber digestibility in lactating cows. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 2747–2757.
Increasing amounts of crushed wheat fed with pasture hay reduced dietary fiber digestibility in lactating cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXmsFems7w%3D&md5=055a5d527b1140385aa9ed938dc7e1acCAS | 19448009PubMed |

Leddin CM, Stockdale CR, Hill J, Heard JW, Doyle PT (2010) Increasing amounts of crushed wheat fed with Persian clover herbage reduced ruminal pH and dietary fibre digestibility in lactating dairy cows. Animal Production Science 50, 837–846.
Increasing amounts of crushed wheat fed with Persian clover herbage reduced ruminal pH and dietary fibre digestibility in lactating dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXht1ajt7%2FP&md5=63ad326db6538b4fcde2aa5b6bef8e07CAS |

Lee JM, Donaghy DJ, Roche JR (2008) Effect of defoliation severity on regrowth and nutritive value of perennial ryegrass dominant swards. Agronomy Journal 100, 308–314.
Effect of defoliation severity on regrowth and nutritive value of perennial ryegrass dominant swards.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lee JM, Hemmingson NR, Minnee EMK, Clark CEF (2012) Chicory and plantain management strategies to increase herbage dry matter yield, nutritive characteristics and plant survival. In ‘Proceedings of the 5th Australasian dairy science symposium 2012’. (Ed. JL Jacobs) pp. 393–397.

Linehan CJ, Armstrong DP, Doyle PT, Johnson F (2004) A survey of water use on irrigated dairy farms in northern Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 44, 131–136.
A survey of water use on irrigated dairy farms in northern Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McEvoy M, Kennedy E, Murphy JP, Boland TM, Delaby L, O’Donovan M (2008) The effect of herbage allowance and concentrate supplementation on milk production performance and dry matter intake of spring-calving dairy cows in early lactation. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 1258–1269.
The effect of herbage allowance and concentrate supplementation on milk production performance and dry matter intake of spring-calving dairy cows in early lactation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXivFemur0%3D&md5=13fac99f980252e9b96f148101a7d85fCAS | 18292284PubMed |

Melsen MG, Armstrong DP, Ho C, Malcolm LR, Doyle PT (2006) Case-study forty-year historical analysis of production and resource use on northern Victoria dairy farming. Australian Farm Business Management Journal. 3, 21–29.

Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (1990) UK tables of nutritive value and chemical composition of feeding stuffs. In ‘Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Standing Committee on Table of Feed Composition’. (Eds DI Givens, JR Hopkins, AR Moss) (Rowett Research Services Ltd: Aberdeen, UK)

Mould FL, Ørskov ER, Mann SO (1983) Associative effects of mixed feeds. I. Effects of type and level of supplementation and the influence of the rumen fluid pH on cellulolysis in vivo and dry matter digestion of various roughages. Animal Feed Science and Technology 10, 15–30.
Associative effects of mixed feeds. I. Effects of type and level of supplementation and the influence of the rumen fluid pH on cellulolysis in vivo and dry matter digestion of various roughages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2cXhtlOrtrs%3D&md5=d2fa8d6f0464e9648953b391c370146bCAS |

Muir SK, Ward GN, Jacobs JL (2014) Milk production and composition of mid lactation cows consuming perennial ryegrass- and chicory-based diets. Journal of Dairy Science 97, 1005–1015.
Milk production and composition of mid lactation cows consuming perennial ryegrass- and chicory-based diets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhvV2gur3I&md5=2ffcc38040861e3af8a7d0b2ce7b771cCAS | 24290818PubMed |

National Research Council (1989) ‘Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle.’ 7th revised edn. (National Academy of Science: Washington, DC)

Neal J, Fulkerson W, Lawrie R, Nandra K, Beale P, Kingston H, Sutton B, Campbell L, Looby P (2005) Development of a more suitable forage base for the dairy industry. In ‘Proceedings of the 10th dairy research foundation symposium’. (Ed. WJ Fulkerson) pp. 65–72. (The University of Sydney: Camden)

OECD–FAO (2013) ‘Agricultural Outlook 2013–2022.’ Available at http://www.oecd.org/site/oecd-faoagriculturaloutlook/. [Verified 2 July 2014]

Parsons AJ, Rasmussen S, Xue H, Newman JA, Anderson CB, Cosgrove GP (2004) Some ‘high sugar grasses’ don’t like it hot. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association. 66, 265–271.

Parsons AJ, Rowarth JS, Rasmussen S (2011) High sugar grasses. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 6,
High sugar grasses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Penno JW, McGrath JM, MacDonald KA, Coulter M, Lancaster JAS (1999) Increasing milk solids production with supplementary feeds. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 59, 188–191.

Rabobank (2013) ‘Rabobank Agriculture in Focus, November 2013 – No longer low-cost milk down under.’ Available at http://www.rabobank.com.au/News-and-Events/Media-Releases/2013-NewsArchive/Pages/media-release-20131127.aspx. [Verified 2 July 2014]

Reynolds CK, Kristensen NB (2007) Nitrogen recycling through the gut and the nitrogen economy of ruminants: as asynchronous symbiosis. Journal of Animal Science 86, E293–E305.
Nitrogen recycling through the gut and the nitrogen economy of ruminants: as asynchronous symbiosis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17940161PubMed |

Roche JR, Turner LR, Lee JM, Edmeades DC, Donaghy DJ, Macdonald KA, Penno JW, Berry DP (2009a) Weather, herbage quality and milk production in pastoral systems. 2. Temporal patterns and intra-relationships in herbage quality and mineral concentration parameters. Animal Production Science 49, 200–210.
Weather, herbage quality and milk production in pastoral systems. 2. Temporal patterns and intra-relationships in herbage quality and mineral concentration parameters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXisFSnt7w%3D&md5=9a895d5c02c4dd5220fef1ef24bd440bCAS |

Roche JR, Turner LR, Lee JM, Edmeades DC, Donaghy DJ, Macdonald KA, Penno JW, Berry DP (2009b) Weather, herbage quality and milk production in pastoral systems. 3. Inter-relationships and associations between weather variables and herbage growth rate, quality and mineral concentration. Animal Production Science 49, 211–221.
Weather, herbage quality and milk production in pastoral systems. 3. Inter-relationships and associations between weather variables and herbage growth rate, quality and mineral concentration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXisFSnt74%3D&md5=ac2c91cefd82707da1883504d60218a9CAS |

Sinclair KD, Garnsworthy PC, Mann GE, Sinclair LA (2014) Reducing dietary protein in dairy cows: implications for nitrogen utilization, milk production, welfare and fertility. Animal 8, 262–274.
Reducing dietary protein in dairy cows: implications for nitrogen utilization, milk production, welfare and fertility.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXptlSjtQ%3D%3D&md5=c2df8abe097e5dac723dd76941e107c9CAS | 24290203PubMed |

Spangenberg G, Mouradov A, Sawbridge TI (2012) Manipulating fructan biosynthesis and enhancing plant biomass. Agriculture Victoria Services Pty Ltd, assignee. USA Pat. No. 20120144526.

Standing Committee on Agriculture and Resource Management (1990) ‘Feeding standards for Australian livestock: ruminants.’ Ruminants Subcommittee. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)

Stockdale CR (1994) Persian clover and maize silage. 1. Silage as a supplement for lactating cows offered herbage of different quality. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 45, 1751–1765.
Persian clover and maize silage. 1. Silage as a supplement for lactating cows offered herbage of different quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stockdale CR (2000) Levels of pasture substitution when concentrates are fed to grazing dairy cows in northern Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 913–921.
Levels of pasture substitution when concentrates are fed to grazing dairy cows in northern Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXptVWqtL8%3D&md5=aed0a2e8e83c3049fcbd0bb6bec669f0CAS |

Stockdale CR, Cohen DC, Doyle PT (2001) Nutritive characteristics of irrigated perennial pastures in northern Victoria and the selection of nutrients by grazing dairy cows. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 601–609.
Nutritive characteristics of irrigated perennial pastures in northern Victoria and the selection of nutrients by grazing dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tas BM, Taweel HZ, Smit HJ, Elgersma A, Dijkstra J, Tamminga S (2005) Effects of perennial ryegrass cultivars on intake, digestibility and milk yield in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 88, 3240–3248.
Effects of perennial ryegrass cultivars on intake, digestibility and milk yield in dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXpvFWhsL4%3D&md5=791ee13c181c8e45c88afc361690e8e7CAS | 16107414PubMed |

Taweel HZ, Tas BM, Smit HJ, Elgersma A, Dijkstra J, Tamminga S (2005) Effects of feeding perennial ryegrass with an elevated concentration of water-soluble carbohydrate on intake, rumen function and performance of dairy cows. Animal Feed Science and Technology 121, 243–256.
Effects of feeding perennial ryegrass with an elevated concentration of water-soluble carbohydrate on intake, rumen function and performance of dairy cows.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXltVensr0%3D&md5=0c90fe541f2fdefb177babb4dc341753CAS |

Tharmaraj J, Chapman DF, Hill J, Jacobs JL, Cullen B (2014) Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 2. Forage harvested. Animal Production Science 54, 234–246.
Increasing home-grown forage consumption and profit in non-irrigated dairy systems. 2. Forage harvested.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Thomas C, Gibbs BG, Beever DE, Thurnham BR (1988) The effect of date of cut and barley substitution on gain and on the efficiency of utilization of grass silage by growing cattle. 1. Gains in liveweight and its components. The British Journal of Nutrition 60, 297–306.
The effect of date of cut and barley substitution on gain and on the efficiency of utilization of grass silage by growing cattle. 1. Gains in liveweight and its components.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL1M%2Fmt1ersw%3D%3D&md5=370cd595c90d18aaeb513d6363b8647dCAS | 3196672PubMed |

Turner LR, Donaghy DJ, Lane PA, Rawnsley RP (2006) Effect of defoliation management, based on leaf stage, on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), prairie grass (Bromus willdenowii Kunth.) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) under dryland conditions. 1. Regrowth, tillering and water soluble carbohydrate concentration. Grass and Forage Science 61, 164–174.
Effect of defoliation management, based on leaf stage, on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), prairie grass (Bromus willdenowii Kunth.) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) under dryland conditions. 1. Regrowth, tillering and water soluble carbohydrate concentration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tyrrell HF, Moe PW (1975) Production efficiency in the high producing cow. Effect of intake on digestion efficiency. Journal of Dairy Science 58, 1151–1163.
Production efficiency in the high producing cow. Effect of intake on digestion efficiency.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Van Bysterveldt A (2007) LUDF – a commercial farm incorporating proven science. In ‘South Island dairy event proceedings, Pp. 230–241. South Island Dairy Event (SIDE). (Lincoln University: Christchurch, New Zealand)

Wales WJ, Doyle PT, Dellow DW (1998) Dry matter intake and nutrient selection by lactating cows grazing irrigated pastures at different pasture allowances in summer and autumn. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, 451–460.
Dry matter intake and nutrient selection by lactating cows grazing irrigated pastures at different pasture allowances in summer and autumn.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXms1OjtLk%3D&md5=752d32b7ad6a3d6e49dad841603b9038CAS |

Wales WJ, Dellow DW, Doyle PT (1999a) Degradabilities of dry matter and crude protein from perennial herbage and supplements used in dairy production systems in Victoria. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39, 645–656.
Degradabilities of dry matter and crude protein from perennial herbage and supplements used in dairy production systems in Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wales WJ, Doyle PT, Stockdale CR, Dellow DW (1999b) Effects of variations in herbage mass, allowance and level of supplement on nutrient intake and milk production of dairy cows in spring and summer. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39, 119–130.
Effects of variations in herbage mass, allowance and level of supplement on nutrient intake and milk production of dairy cows in spring and summer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wales WJ, Kolver ES, Egan AR (2008) Digestion during continuous culture fermentation when replacing perennial ryegrass with barley/steam flaked maize. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 189–196.

Wales WJ, Marett LC, Greenwood JS, Wright MM, Thornhill JB, Jacobs JL, Ho CKM, Auldist MJ (2013) Use of partial mixed rations in pasture-based dairying in temperate regions of Australia. Animal Production Science 53, 1167–1178.
Use of partial mixed rations in pasture-based dairying in temperate regions of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhsFGgsrvK&md5=b728ada388b63de980c84add4c45f6fbCAS |

Williams YJ, Walker G, Doyle PT, Egan AR, Stockdale CR (2005) Rumen fermentation characteristics of dairy cows grazing different allowances of Persian clover- or perennial ryegrass-dominant swards in spring. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 45, 665–675.
Rumen fermentation characteristics of dairy cows grazing different allowances of Persian clover- or perennial ryegrass-dominant swards in spring.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williams YJ, Doyle PT, Egan AR (2014) Diurnal variation in rumen fill of dairy cows grazing Persian clover at different pasture allowances. Animal Production Science 54, in press.

Winichayakul S, Scott RW, Roldan M, Hatier JHB, Livingston S, Cookson R, Curran AC, Roberts NJ (2013) In vivo packaging of triacylglycerols enhances Arabidopsis leaf biomass and energy density. Plant Physiology 162, 626–639.
In vivo packaging of triacylglycerols enhances Arabidopsis leaf biomass and energy density.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXps1Oru78%3D&md5=aed32b060a4ad20b3c1a16565d511f9fCAS | 23616604PubMed |

Woodward SL, Roach GC, MacDonald KA, Siemelink JC (2008) Forage mixed ration dairy farming – the pros and cons. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Society. 70, 183–188.