Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Ractopamine with dietary lysine concentrations above basal requirements of finishing barrows improves growth performance, carcass traits and modifies the mTor signalling pathway

M. S. S. Ferreira A F , T. S. Araújo C , A. C. Alves A , L. C. J. Porto C , A. P. Schinckel D , Z. J. Rambo E , V. S. Cantarelli B , M. G. Zangeronimo A and R. V. Sousa A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Veterinary Medicine Department, Lavras Federal University, Campus Universitário, Lavras, 37200-000 Brazil.

B Animal Science Department, Lavras Federal University, Campus Universitário, Lavras, 37200-000 Brazil.

C Nutrition Department, Lavras Federal University, Campus Universitário, Lavras, 37200-000 Brazil.

D Animal Science Department, Purdue University, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.

E Zinpro Corporation, 10400 Viking Drive, Eden Prairie, MN 55344, USA.

F Corresponding author. Email: mfmv433@gmail.com

Animal Production Science 57(8) 1682-1691 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN15565
Submitted: 11 September 2015  Accepted: 15 April 2016   Published: 29 July 2016

Abstract

A 28-day study was conducted to evaluate the effects of three step-up levels of ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) together with two additional levels of standardised ileal digestible lysine (Lys) above the basal requirements on growth performance, carcass characteristics and the mechanism of action on adipose and muscle tissue. In all, 108 finishing pigs (initial bodyweight 75.37 kg ± 2.88) were used for growth data and 54 pigs for carcass data. Samples from 18 pigs were used for the molecular study. Pigs were blocked by initial bodyweight and allotted to one of the following nine treatments: negative control (NC) without addition of RAC or Lys supplementation, constant 7.5 mg/kg RAC, 5 mg/kg RAC for 14 days, followed by 10 mg/kg for 14 days (Step-up 1), 5 mg/kg RAC for 21 days, followed by 10 mg/kg for 7 days (Step-up 2) and 5 mg/kg RAC for 7 days followed by 10 mg/kg for 21 days (Step up 3); on constant and step-up treatments were added 15% or 30% Lys above the basal level, giving a 4 × 2 + 1 factorial with six replicates. Loin muscle and fat tissue were collected for carcass-characteristic analysis and western blotting for p-AKT, p-P70S6K and carnitine palmitoyltransferase I. Feeding RAC increased gain to feed ratio and efficiency of energy utilisation (EF) from Day 0 to Day 13 (P < 0.05) compared with NC. From Day 14 to Day 27, greater average daily gain (ADG) was observed in RAC-treated animals (P < 0.05), except in the Step-up 2 with 30% additional Lys. During the second half of the trial, RAC positively affected ADG, gain to feed ratio and EF (P < 0.01), while a Step-1 versus Step-2 effect was observed for ADG (P < 0.03). For the overall period, RAC-treated pigs had greater ADG than did NC pigs (P < 0.05). An average of 8.1% improvement on feed efficiency and 30% improvement on EF were observed for RAC-fed pigs in comparison to NC pigs (P < 0.05). Chilled carcass weight and loin eye area were increased in pigs fed RAC (P < 0.01). Western blotting showed greater p-P70S6K in muscle samples from pigs fed RAC with 15% additional Lys than in those from NC pigs (P < 0.10). RAC was effective at improving efficiency of production. Lys supplementation of 15% was enough for optimal performance of the pigs in the present study; however, step-up programs did not outperform RAC-constant programs. Results of the present study suggest that RAC stimulates protein synthesis through the mTOR signalling pathway.

Additional keywords: β-agonist, lysine, mTOR, pigs, protein synthesis.


References

Almeida VV, Nuñez AJC, Schinckel AP, Andrade C, Balieiro JCC, Sbardella M, Miyada VS (2013) Time-response relationship of ractopamine feeding on growth performance, plasma urea nitrogen concentration, and carcass traits of finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 91, 811–818.
Time-response relationship of ractopamine feeding on growth performance, plasma urea nitrogen concentration, and carcass traits of finishing pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXlvVKmsro%3D&md5=11a2921fc0dbf627c282da61da20f3deCAS | 23307848PubMed |

Andretta I, Kipper M, Lehnen CR, Demori AB, Remus A, Lovatto PA (2012) Meta-analysis of the relationship between ractopamine and dietary lysine levels on carcass characteristics in pigs. Meat Science 143, 91–96.

Azain MJ (2004) Role of fatty acids in adipocyte growth and development. Journal of Animal Science 82, 916–924.

BRASIL (2000) Secretaria de defesa agropecuária/Ministério da agricultura, pecuária e abastecimento. Instrução normativa n. 3 de 17 de janeiro de 2000. Regulamento técnico de métodos de insensibilização para o abate humanitário de animais de açougue. Available at http://extranet.agricultura.gov.br/sislegis-consulta/consultarLegislacao.do?operacao=visualizar&id=1793 [Verified 10 January 2014]

Canchi D, Li N, Foster K, Preckel PV, Schinckel A, Richert B (2010) Optimal control of desensitizing inputs: the case of paylean. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 92, 56–69.
Optimal control of desensitizing inputs: the case of paylean.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cantarelli VS, Fialho ET, Almeida EC, Zangeronimo MG, Rodrigues PB, Freitas RTF (2009) Ractopamine for finishing barrows fed restricted or ad libitum diets: performance and nitrogen balance. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia 38, 2375–2382.
Ractopamine for finishing barrows fed restricted or ad libitum diets: performance and nitrogen balance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Carr SN, Hamilton DN, Miller KD, Schroeder AL, Fernández-Dueñas D, Killefer J, Ellis M, McKeith FK (2009) The effect of ractopamine hydrochloride (Paylean®) on lean carcass yields and pork quality characteristics of heavy pigs fed normal and amino acid fortified diets. Meat Science 81, 533–539.
The effect of ractopamine hydrochloride (Paylean®) on lean carcass yields and pork quality characteristics of heavy pigs fed normal and amino acid fortified diets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsVKls7vM&md5=9f514049a8ec9db773861521913b9974CAS | 20416594PubMed |

Dunshea FR, King RH, Campbell RG, Sainz RD, Kim YS (1993) Interrelationships between sex and ractopamine on protein and lipid deposition in rapidly growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 71, 2919–2930.

Ferreira MSS, Garbossa CAP, Oberlender G, Pereira LJ, Zangeronimo MG, Sousa RV, Cantarelli VS (2013) Effect of ractopamine on lipid metabolism in vivo: a systematic review. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology 56, 35–43.
Effect of ractopamine on lipid metabolism in vivo: a systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXpt1OnsLg%3D&md5=994084e60d58b1e2dc691f73c93bb4cbCAS |

Foretz M, Carling C, Guichard C, Ferré P, Foufelle F (1998) AMP-activated protein kinase inhibits the glucose-activated expression of fatty acid synthase gene in rat hepatocytes. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 273, 14767–14771.
AMP-activated protein kinase inhibits the glucose-activated expression of fatty acid synthase gene in rat hepatocytes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXktVeisrk%3D&md5=b5ef1fe79b7761230c1133af0f067e39CAS | 9614076PubMed |

Garbossa CAP, Sousa RV, Cantarelli VS, Pimenta MESG, Zangeronimo MG, Silveira H, Kuribayashi TH, Cerqueira LGS (2013) Ractopamine levels on performance, carcass characteristics and quality of pig meat. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia 42, 325–333.
Ractopamine levels on performance, carcass characteristics and quality of pig meat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gelinas JN, Banko JL, Hou L, Sonenberg N, Weeber EJ, Klann E, Nguyen PV (2007) Erk and mTOR Signaling couple β-adrenergic receptors to translation initiation machinery to gate induction of protein synthesis-dependent long-term potentiation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 282, 27527–27535.
Erk and mTOR Signaling couple β-adrenergic receptors to translation initiation machinery to gate induction of protein synthesis-dependent long-term potentiation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtVWjsbzO&md5=0b72fe73005f542c165c8340fc49a014CAS | 17635924PubMed |

Gunawan AM, Richert BT, Schinckel AP, Grant AL, Gerrard DE (2007) Ractopamine induces differential gene expression in porcine skeletal muscles. Journal of Animal Science 85, 2115–2124.
Ractopamine induces differential gene expression in porcine skeletal muscles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXpsVGlsrY%3D&md5=7a89f372e6b16775724e0946ec893f9fCAS | 17468428PubMed |

Halsey CHC, Weber PS, Reiter SS, Stronach BN, Bartosh JL, Bergen WG (2011) The effect of ractopamine hydrochloride on gene expression in adipose tissues of finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 89, 1011–1019.
The effect of ractopamine hydrochloride on gene expression in adipose tissues of finishing pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3M3ns1Kgug%3D%3D&md5=6e541eda5497259c3e9c71b60f040e07CAS |

Hinson RB, Wiegand BR, Ritter MJ, Allee GJ, Carr SN (2011) Impact of dietary energy level and ractopamine on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 89, 3572–3579.
Impact of dietary energy level and ractopamine on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of finishing pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVSqsrrN&md5=f16ba475923eb39bf50c8cf56ba57608CAS | 21622875PubMed |

Hinson RB, Allee GL, Ritter MJ, Parks CW, Boler DD, Carr SN (2012) Evaluation of different doses and durations of ractopamine (Paylean) on growth performance and carcass characteristics of late finishing market pigs. The Professional Animal Scientist 28, 395–402.
Evaluation of different doses and durations of ractopamine (Paylean) on growth performance and carcass characteristics of late finishing market pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kim K, Lopez-Casillas F, Bai DH, Luo X, Pape ME (1989) Role of reversible phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in long-chain fatty acid synthesis. The FASEB Journal 3, 2250–2256.

Kutzler LW, Peterson CM, Ellis M, Carr SN, Ritter MJ, Armstrong TA, McKeith FK, Killefer J (2010) Ractopamine (Paylean) response in heavy-weight finishing pigs. The Professional Animal Scientist 26, 243–249.
Ractopamine (Paylean) response in heavy-weight finishing pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mersmann HJ, Carey GB, Smith EO (1997) Adipose tissue beta-adrenergic and A1 adenosine receptors in suckling pigs. Journal of Animal Science 75, 3161–3168.

Mimbs KJ, Pringle TD, Azain MJ, Meers SA, Armstrong TA (2005) Effects of ractopamine on performance and composition of pigs phenotypically sorted into fat and lean groups. Journal of Animal Science 83, 1361–1369.

Miniaci MC, Bucci M, Santamaria R, Irace C, Cantalupo A, Cirino GT, Scotto P (2013) CL316,243, a selective β3-adrenoceptor agonist, activates protein translation through mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway in rat skeletal muscle cells. Pflugers Archiv-European Journal Of Physiology 465, 509–516.
CL316,243, a selective β3-adrenoceptor agonist, activates protein translation through mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway in rat skeletal muscle cells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXmtlektbY%3D&md5=01ff53bfed6d75189887386451759727CAS | 23334408PubMed |

Mitchell AD, Solomon MB, Steelea NC (1990) Response of low and high protein select lines of pigs to the feeding of the beta-adrenergic agonist ractopamine (phenethanolamine). Journal of Animal Science 68, 3226–3232.

Moody DE, Hancook DL, Anderson DB (2000) Phenethanolamine repartitioning agents. In ‘Farm animal metabolism and nutrition’. (Ed. JPFD Mello) pp. 65–95. (CABI: New York)

NRC (2012) ‘Nutrient requirements of swine.’ 11th edn. (National Academy Press: Washington, DC)

Patience JF, Shand P, Pietrasik Z, Merrill J, Vessie G, Ross KA, Beaulieu AD (2009) The effect of ractopamine supplementation at 5 ppm of swine finishing diets on growth performance, carcass composition and ultimate pork quality. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 89, 53–66.
The effect of ractopamine supplementation at 5 ppm of swine finishing diets on growth performance, carcass composition and ultimate pork quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXmtV2itLc%3D&md5=17c82b760881906743fa6a8e4e444703CAS |

Pavoine C, Defer N (2005) The cardiac beta2-adrenergic signaling a new role for the cPLA2. Cellular Signalling 17, 141–152.
The cardiac beta2-adrenergic signaling a new role for the cPLA2.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXos1eqs70%3D&md5=a8c75d94215d12e8c4739cf1d7c80d27CAS | 15494206PubMed |

Poletto R, Rostagno MH, Richert BT, Marchant-Forde JN (2009) Effects of a ‘step-up’ ractopamine feeding program, sex, and social rank on growth performance, hoof lesions, and Enterobacteriaceae shedding in finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 87, 304–313.
Effects of a ‘step-up’ ractopamine feeding program, sex, and social rank on growth performance, hoof lesions, and Enterobacteriaceae shedding in finishing pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXptFOksA%3D%3D&md5=cc52a459f91cbf1a67ca944db31fdb57CAS | 18765847PubMed |

Rasband WS, Ferreira T (2012) ‘ImageJ.’ (US National Institutes of Health: Bethesda, MD) Available at http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/ [Verified 29 October 2013]

Reiter AK, Anthony TG, Anthony JC, Jefferson LS, Kimball SR (2004) The mTOR signaling pathway mediates control of ribosomal protein mRNA translation in rat liver. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology 36, 2169–2179.
The mTOR signaling pathway mediates control of ribosomal protein mRNA translation in rat liver.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmslOitLo%3D&md5=515bb5fd249e4a85440867ec56d7d408CAS |

Reiter SS, Halsey CHC, Stronach BM, Bartosh JL, Owsley WF, Bergen WG (2007) Lipid metabolism related gene-expression profiling in liver, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue in crossbred Duroc and Pietrain pigs. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology D 2, 200–206.

Ricciardi S, Boggio EM, Grosso S, Lonetti G, Forlani G, Stefanelli G, Calcagno E, Morello N, Landsberger N, Biffo S, Pizzorusso T, Giustetto M, Broccoli V (2011) Reduced AKT/mTOR signaling and protein synthesis dysregulation in a Rett syndrome animal model. Human Molecular Genetics 20, 1182–1196.
Reduced AKT/mTOR signaling and protein synthesis dysregulation in a Rett syndrome animal model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXisFagtbY%3D&md5=b650f2f272b9f3d8ca3dd886b3f8cb20CAS | 21212100PubMed |

Ross KA, Beaulieu AD, Merrill J, Vessie G, Patience JF (2011) The impact of ractopamine hydrochloride on growth and metabolism, with special consideration of its role on nitrogen balance and water utilization in pork production. Journal of Animal Science 89, 2243–2256.
The impact of ractopamine hydrochloride on growth and metabolism, with special consideration of its role on nitrogen balance and water utilization in pork production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXoslCisbw%3D&md5=a9bef7c6295e59a76b40cb087f6c0420CAS | 21278114PubMed |

Rostagno HS, Albino LFT, Donzele JL, Gomes PC, Oliveira RF, Lopes DC, Ferreira AS, Barreto SLT, Euclides RF (Eds) (2011) ‘Tabelas brasileira para aves e suínos: composição de alimentos e exigências nutricionais.’ 3rd edn. (Editora UFV: Viçosa, MG, Brazil)

Schinckel AP, Herr CT, Richert BT, Forrest JC, Einstein ME (2003) Ractopamine treatment biases in the prediction of pork carcass composition. Journal of Animal Science 81, 16–28.

Schinckel AP, Li N, Richert BT, Preckel PV, Foster K, Einstein ME (2006) Development of a model to describe the compositional growth and dietary lysine requirements of pigs fed increasing dietary concentrations of ractopamine. The Professional Animal Scientist 22, 438–449.
Development of a model to describe the compositional growth and dietary lysine requirements of pigs fed increasing dietary concentrations of ractopamine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

See MT, Armstrong TA, Weldon WC (2004) Effect of a ractopamine feeding program on growth performance and carcass composition in finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 82, 2474–2480.

Spurlock ME, Cusumano JC, Ji SQ, Anderson DB, Smith CK,, Hancock DL, Mills SE (1994) The effect of ractopamine on beta-adrenoceptor density and affinity in porcine adipose and skeletal muscle tissue. Journal of Animal Science 72, 75–80.

Tavárez MA, Boler DD, Carr SN, Ritter MJ, Petry DB, Souza CM, Killefer J, McKeith FK, Dilger AC (2012) Fresh meat quality and further processing characteristics of shoulders from finishing pigs fed ractopamine hydrochloride. Journal of Animal Science 90, 5122–5134.
Fresh meat quality and further processing characteristics of shoulders from finishing pigs fed ractopamine hydrochloride.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22952374PubMed |

Tremblay F, Gagnon A, Veilleux A, Sorisky A, Marette A (2005) Activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway acutely inhibits insulin signaling to Akt and glucose transport in 3T3-L1 and human adipocytes. Endocrinology 146, 1328–1337.
Activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway acutely inhibits insulin signaling to Akt and glucose transport in 3T3-L1 and human adipocytes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXitleht7o%3D&md5=850d84373ce79f15913acf40ab567a69CAS | 15576463PubMed |

Weber TE, Richert BT, Belury MA, Gu Y, Enright K, Schinckel AP (2006) Evaluation of the effects of dietary fat, conjugated linoleic acid, and ractopamine on growth performance, pork quality, and fatty acid prolifes genetically lean gilts. Journal of Animal Science 84, 720–732.

Zhang W, Yano N, Deng M, Mao Q, Shaw SK, Tseng YT (2011) b-Adrenergic receptor-pi3k signaling crosstalk in mouse heart: elucidation of immediate downstream signaling cascades. PLoS One 6, e26581
b-Adrenergic receptor-pi3k signaling crosstalk in mouse heart: elucidation of immediate downstream signaling cascades.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVCrsrvJ&md5=6dbd97880e9449ae707efdac5c5b672dCAS | 22028912PubMed |