Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Gene transfer: potential to enhance the genome of Atlantic salmon for aquaculture

G. L. Fletcher A B C , M. A. Shears A , E. S. Yaskowiak A , M. J. King A and S. V. Goddard B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Ocean Sciences Centre, Memorial University, St John’s, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada.

B Aqua Bounty Canada, PO Box 21233, St John’s, NL, A1A 5B2, Canada.

C Corresponding author. Email: gfletcher@aquabounty.com

Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 44(11) 1095-1100 https://doi.org/10.1071/EA03223
Submitted: 6 November 2003  Accepted: 8 October 2004   Published: 14 December 2004

Abstract

Over the past 20 years we have generated stable lines of transgenic Atlantic salmon possessing either antifreeze protein (AFP) genes or a salmon growth hormone (GH) gene construct. The AFP gene transfer studies were initiated in 1982. The AFP transgene integrated into salmon genomic DNA and AFP has been found in the blood of all 5 generations to date. However, AFP levels are low and a means to raise these levels needs to be developed. Our GH gene transfer studies were initiated in 1989. Evidence to date indicates that a single copy of the GH transgene integrated into chromosomal DNA and has been passed down in Mendelian fashion, along with its rapid growth phenotype, over 6 generations. Laboratory studies indicate that our GH transgene enhances growth rates with Atlantic salmon reaching market size (4–6 kg) a year earlier than non-transgenics cultured commercially in Atlantic Canada.

This GH gene transfer technology was patented and licensed to Aqua Bounty Farms Inc., and the transgenic salmon are currently under review by various government regulatory authorities in the USA and Canada for use in commercial aquaculture ventures. Our experience with the regulatory authorities, the industry and the press indicates that the successful introduction of transgenic salmon into the aquaculture industry involves issues concerning not only science but also food safety, environmental safety, animal welfare and consumer acceptance. This communication centres on our experience with Atlantic salmon and outlines our plans and progress towards demonstrating the safety of transgenic fish to the consumer and to the environment.


Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge NSERC, MRC, IRAP-NRC, ACOA, DFO, Aqua Bounty Canada and AquaNet, the Network of Centres of Excellence for Aquaculture for the funding of this research.


References


Aiken D (1986) Chill waters test mettle of Fundy salmon farmers. Canadian Aquaculture 2, 27–29. open url image1

Alestrøm P (1995) Genetic engineering in aquaculture. In ‘Sustainable fish farming’. (Eds H Reinertsen, H Haaland) (AA Balkema: Rotterdam)

Berkowitz DB, Kryspin-Sorensen I (1994) Transgenic fish: safe to eat? Biol. Technology (Elmsford, N.Y.) 12, 247–252. open url image1

Devlin RH (1997) Transgenic salmonids. In ‘Transgenic animals, generation and use’. (Ed. LM Houdebine) pp. 105–117. (Harwood Academic Publishers)

Devlin RH, Donaldson EM (1992) Containment of genetically altered fish with emphasis on salmonids. In ‘Transgenic fish’. (Eds CL Hew, GL Fletcher) pp. 229–265. (World Scientific)

Fletcher GL, Alderson R, Chin-Dixon EA, Shears MA, Goddard SV, Hew CL (1999a) Transgenic fish for sustainable aquaculture. In ‘Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on sustainable aquaculture’. (Eds N Svennevig, H Reinertsen, M New) pp. 193–201. (AA Balkema: Rotterdam)

Fletcher GL, Davies PL (1991) Transgenic fish for aquaculture. In ‘Genetic engineering, principles and methods’. (Ed. JK Setlow) pp. 331–370. (Plenum Press: New York)

Fletcher GL, Goddard SV, Davies PL, Gong Z, Ewart KV, Hew CL (1998) New insights into antifreeze proteins in fish: physiological significance and molecular regulation. In ‘Cold ocean physiology’. (Eds HO Portner, R Playle) pp. 239–265. (Cambridge University Press)

Fletcher GL, Goddard SV, Wu Y (1999) Antifreeze proteins and their genes: from basic research to business opportunity. Chemtech 29, 17–28. open url image1

Fletcher GL, Hew CL, Davies PL (2001) Antifreeze proteins of teleost fishes. Annual Review of Physiology 63, 359–390.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Food and Agriculture Organization (1999) ‘The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998.’ (Food and Agriculture Organization: Rome)

Gjedrem T (1997) Selective breeding to improve aquaculture production. World Aquaculture 28, 33–45. open url image1

Hardy RW (2000) New developments in aquatic feed ingredients, and potential of enzyme supplements. In ‘Avances en nutricion acuicola v. memorias del v simposium internacional de nutricion acuicola’. (Eds LE Cruz-Suarez, D Ricque-Marie, M Tapia-Salazar, MA Olvera-Novoa, R y Civera-Cerecedo) pp. 216–226.

Hardy RW, Higgs DA, Lall SP, Tacon ACJ (2001) Alternative dietary protein and lipid sources for sustainable production of salmonids. Fisken Og Havet NR. 8-2001 Havforskningsinstituttet (Institute of Marine Research), Bergen, Norway. 53 pp.

Hew CL, Fletcher GL (1997) Transgenic fish for aquaculture. Chemistry and Industry 21, 311–314. open url image1

Hew CL, Fletcher GL (2001) The role of aquatic biotechnology in aquaculture. Aquaculture (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 197, 191–204.
Crossref |
open url image1

Hew CL, Fletcher GL, Davies PL (1995) Transgenic salmon: tailoring the genome for food production. Journal of Fish Biology Supplement A 47, 1–19.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Johnstone R (1996) Experience with salmonid sex reversal and triploidisation technologies in the United Kingdom. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association of Canada 96, 9–13. open url image1

Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (1992) ‘Aquaculture in the United States: status, opportunities, and recommendations. A report to the federal coordinating council on science, engineering and technology.’ US Department of Agriculture, Office of Aquaculture, Washington DC.

Melamed P, Gong Z, Fletcher G, Hew CL (2002) The potential impact of modern biotechnology on fish aquaculture. Aquaculture (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 204, 255–269.
Crossref |
open url image1

Naylor RL, Goldburg RJ, Primavera JH, Kautsky N, Beveridge MCM, Clay J, Folke C, Lubchenco J, Mooney H, Troell M (2000) Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405, 1017–1024.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

New MB (1997) Aquaculture and the capture fisheries — balancing the scales. World Aquaculture 28, 11–30.
Crossref |
open url image1

Palmiter RD, Brinster RL, Hammer RE, Trumbauer ME, Rosenfeld MG, Brinberg NC, Evans RM (1982) Dramatic growth of mice that develop from eggs microinjected with metallothionein-growth hormone fusion genes. Nature 30, 611–615.
Crossref |
open url image1

Pauly D, Christensen V, Dalsgaard J, Froese R, Torres F (1998) Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279, 860–863.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Raynor B, Campbell M (2003) Superchill hits maritimes hard. Fish Farming 15, 1–2. open url image1

Rodrigues PNS, Dixon B, Roelofs J, Rombout JHWM, Egberts E, Pohajdak B, Stet RJM (1998) Expression and temperature-dependent regulation of the beta 2-microglobulin (Cyca-B2m) gene in a cold blooded vertebrate, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Developmental Immunology 5, 263–275.
Crossref | PubMed |
open url image1

Rosenthal H, Allen JH, Helm MM, McInerney-Northcott M (1995) Aquaculture technology: its application, development, and transfer. In ‘Cold-water aquaculture in Atlantic Canada’. (Ed. AD Boghen) pp. 393–450. (Canadian Institute for Research on Regional Development, Université de Moncton: Moncton, NB, Canada)

Shears MA, Fletcher GL, Hew CL, Gauthier S, Davies PL (1991) Transfer, expression, and stable inheritance of antifreeze protein genes in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Molecular Marine Biology and Biotechnology 1, 58–63. open url image1

Silva SS, Buchanan B (2000) Regulatory considerations for transgenic animal health and food safety assessment. In ‘Proceedings of the 6th international symposium on the biosafety of genetically modified organisms’. (Eds C Fairbairn, G Scoles, A McHughen) pp. 185–189. (University Extension Press: University of Saskatchewan)

Stewart JE (1997) Environmental impacts of aquaculture. World Aquaculture 28, 47–52. open url image1

Watson R, Pauly D (2001) Systematic distortions in world fisheries catch trends. Nature 414, 534–536.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Wilson EO (1994) ‘The diversity of life.’ (Penguin Books)