Register      Login
Environmental Chemistry Environmental Chemistry Society
Environmental problems - Chemical approaches
RESEARCH FRONT

Current perspective on produced water management challenges during hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas recovery

Kelvin Gregory A B and Arvind Murali Mohan A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.

B Corresponding author. Email: kelvin@cmu.edu

Environmental Chemistry 12(3) 261-266 https://doi.org/10.1071/EN15001
Submitted: 1 January 2015  Accepted: 16 April 2015   Published: 22 May 2015

Environmental context. There is growing worldwide interest in the production of oil and gas from deep, shale formations following advances in the technical expertise to exploit these resources such as hydraulic fracturing (fracking). The potential widespread application of hydraulic fracturing has raised concerns over deleterious environmental impacts on fragile water resources. We discuss the environmental management challenges faced by the oil and gas industry, and the opportunities for innovation in the industry.

Abstract. The need for cheap and readily available energy and chemical feedstock, and the desire for energy independence have spurred worldwide interest in the development of unconventional oil and gas resources; in particular, the production of oil and gas from shale formations. Although these resources have been known for a long time, the technical expertise and market forces that enable economical development has coincided over the last 15 years. The amalgamation of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing have enabled favourable economics for development of fossil energy from these unconventional reservoirs, but their potential widespread application has raised concerns over deleterious environmental impacts on fragile water resources. The environmental management challenges faced by the oil and gas industry arise from local water availability and infrastructure for treating and disposing of the high-strength wastewater that is produced. Although there are significant challenges, these create opportunities for innovation in the industry.

Additional keywords: biogeochemistry, chemical toxicology, ecotoxicology, redox chemistry, water chemistry.


References

[1]  K. B. Gregory, R. D. Vidic, D. A. Dzombak, Water management challenges associated with the production of shale gas by hydraulic fracturing. Elements 2011, 7, 181.
Water management challenges associated with the production of shale gas by hydraulic fracturing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[2]  R. D. Vidic, S. L. Brantley, J. M. Vandenbossche, D. Yoxtheimer, J. D. Abad, Impact of shale gas development on regional water quality. Science 2013, 340, 1235009.
Impact of shale gas development on regional water quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3snltVOmtA%3D%3D&md5=c3250e53be6f8b73e9ac00ae36f3f757CAS | 23687049PubMed |

[3]  A. Vengosh, R. B. Jackson, N. Warner, T. H. Darrah, A. Kondash, A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 8334.
A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXjslCru7o%3D&md5=8d6c9b6cf99d13dfdb01225fff3cff4cCAS | 24606408PubMed |

[4]  E. C. Chapman, R. C. Capo, B. W. Stewart, C. S. Kirby, R. W. Hammack, K. T. Schroeder, H. M. Edenborn, Geochemical and strontium isotope characterization of produced waters from marcellus shale natural gas extraction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 3545.
Geochemical and strontium isotope characterization of produced waters from marcellus shale natural gas extraction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XislOmsbg%3D&md5=0b03f7e07aa8d800bc8cc9e63148e069CAS | 22360406PubMed |

[5]  Modern Shale Gas Development in the United States: A Primer 2009 (Ground Water Protection Council and ALL Consulting: Morgantown, WV, USA).

[6]  A. Kissinger, R. Helmig, A. Ebigbo, H. Class, T. Lange, M. Sauter, M. Heitfeld, J. Klünker, W. Jahnke, Hydraulic fracturing in unconventional gas reservoirs: risks in the geological system, part 2. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 70, 3855.
Hydraulic fracturing in unconventional gas reservoirs: risks in the geological system, part 2.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhvVGqs7fK&md5=58f45acffa5b9d1b79579e1a05ea1859CAS |

[7]  S. G. Osborn, A. Vengosh, N. R. Warner, R. B. Jackson, Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 8172.
Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXmsF2jsLw%3D&md5=354e05b7cbb1f2203a7e44b4e365c322CAS | 21555547PubMed |

[8]  DiGiulio  D. C., Wilkin  R. T., Miller  C., Oberly  G., DRAFT: Investigation of Ground Water Contamination near Pavillion, Wyoming 2011 (US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development: Washington, DC).

[9]  N. R. Warner, T. M. Kresse, P. D. Hays, A. Down, J. D. Karr, R. B. Jackson, A. Vengosh, Geochemical and isotopic variations in shallow groundwater in areas of the Fayetteville Shale development, north-central Arkansas. Appl. Geochem. 2013, 35, 207.
Geochemical and isotopic variations in shallow groundwater in areas of the Fayetteville Shale development, north-central Arkansas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXoslWns7o%3D&md5=1bbf8c99aa306a1c9dae8576e4bc81dcCAS |

[10]  K. M. Révész, K. J. Breen, A. J. Baldassare, R. C. Burruss, Carbon and hydrogen isotopic evidence for the origin of combustible gases in water-supply wells in north-central Pennsylvania. Appl. Geochem. 2010, 25, 1845.
Carbon and hydrogen isotopic evidence for the origin of combustible gases in water-supply wells in north-central Pennsylvania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[11]  M. Zoback, Managing the Seismic Risk Posed by Wastewater Disposal, in American Rock Mechanics Association e-Newsletter 2012, pp. 1–5 (American Rock Mechanics Association: Alexandria, VA).

[12]  Protecting our Country's Resources: The States’ Case, Orphaned Well Plugging Initiative 2008 (Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission, National Energy Technology Laboratory: Morgantown, WV).

[13]  R. B. Jackson, A. Vengosh, T. H. Darrah, N. R. Warner, A. Down, R. J. Poreda, S. G. Osborn, K. Zhao, J. D. Karr, Increased stray gas abundance in a subset of drinking water wells near Marcellus shale gas extraction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 11250.
Increased stray gas abundance in a subset of drinking water wells near Marcellus shale gas extraction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXht1GlsrbM&md5=ed26e6af1ad241abb6b53069371aeb44CAS | 23798404PubMed |

[14]  M. J. Whiticar, Carbon and hydrogen isotope systematics of bacterial formation and oxidation of methane. Chem. Geol. 1999, 161, 291.
Carbon and hydrogen isotope systematics of bacterial formation and oxidation of methane.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXntFKntr0%3D&md5=93100ce4312cac361aba891846772898CAS |

[15]  T. M. Kresse, N. R. Warner, P. D. Hays, A. Down, A. Vengosh, R. B. Jackson, Shallow groundwater quality and geochemistry in the Fayetteville Shale gas-production area, North-Central Arkansas. Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5273 2011 (US Geological Survey: Washington, DC).

[16]  P. Boschee, Produced and flowback water recycling and reuse. Oil Gas Facilit. 2014, 3, 16.
Produced and flowback water recycling and reuse.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[17]  N. Atkinson, K. King, Flooding and fracking: a review of extreme weather impacts on drilling activities, in Natural Resources & Environment 2012, p. 28–36 (American Bar Association: Washington, DC).

[18]  N. R. Warner, R. B. Jackson, T. H. Darrah, S. G. Osborn, A. Down, K. G. Zhao, A. White, A. Vengosh, Geochemical evidence for possible natural migration of Marcellus Formation brine to shallow aquifers in Pennsylvania. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 11961.
Geochemical evidence for possible natural migration of Marcellus Formation brine to shallow aquifers in Pennsylvania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xht1GrtLzO&md5=8f54d729c18a6a49bd64eae6ac998a30CAS | 22778445PubMed |

[19]  E. Barbot, N. S. Vidic, K. B. Gregory, R. D. Vidic, Spatial and temporal correlation of water quality parameters of produced waters from Devonian-Age shale following hydraulic fracturing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 2562.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXivFalu7Y%3D&md5=9d4977f13d4fb6bfc3d871a5e0cd4e43CAS | 23425120PubMed |

[20]  K. M. Keranen, H. M. Savage, G. A. Abers, E. S. Cochran, Potentially induced earthquakes in Oklahoma, USA: links between wastewater injection and the 2011 Mw 5.7 earthquake sequence. Geology 2013, 41, 699.
Potentially induced earthquakes in Oklahoma, USA: links between wastewater injection and the 2011 Mw 5.7 earthquake sequence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[21]  C. Frohlich, C. Hayward, B. Stump, E. Potter, The Dallas–Fort Worth earthquake sequence: October 2008 through May 2009. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2011, 101, 327.
The Dallas–Fort Worth earthquake sequence: October 2008 through May 2009.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[22]  W.-Y. Kim, Induced seismicity associated with fluid injection into a deep well in Youngstown, Ohio. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 2013, 118, 3506.
Induced seismicity associated with fluid injection into a deep well in Youngstown, Ohio.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[23]  Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials From Uranium Mining 2008 (EPA: Washington, DC).

[24]  D. M. Kargbo, R. G. Wilhelm, D. J. Campbell, Natural gas plays in the Marcellus Shale: challenges and potential opportunities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 5679.
Natural gas plays in the Marcellus Shale: challenges and potential opportunities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmvVSlur8%3D&md5=4714054a24d890a2eaa1022d37a44982CAS | 20518558PubMed |

[25]  J. Davis, C. Struchtemeyer, M. Elshahed, Bacterial communities associated with production facilities of two newly drilled thermogenic natural gas wells in the Barnett Shale (Texas, USA). Microb. Ecol. 2012, 64, 942.
Bacterial communities associated with production facilities of two newly drilled thermogenic natural gas wells in the Barnett Shale (Texas, USA).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsFGjsrjI&md5=099de8dc8f3eabec72b26f9095bfdc88CAS | 22622766PubMed |

[26]  S. Horton, Disposal of hydrofracking waste fluid by injection into subsurface aquifers triggers earthquake swarm in Central Arkansas with potential for damaging earthquake. Seismol. Res. Lett. 2012, 83, 250.
Disposal of hydrofracking waste fluid by injection into subsurface aquifers triggers earthquake swarm in Central Arkansas with potential for damaging earthquake.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[27]  W. L. Ellsworth, Injection-induced earthquakes. Science 2013, 341, 1225942.
Injection-induced earthquakes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23846903PubMed |

[28]  T. Zhang, K. B. Gregory, R. W. Hammack, R. D. Vidic, Co-precipitation of radium with barium and strontium sulfate and its impact on the fate of radium during treatment of produced water from unconventional gas extraction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 4596.
Co-precipitation of radium with barium and strontium sulfate and its impact on the fate of radium during treatment of produced water from unconventional gas extraction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXkvVyrsr4%3D&md5=a66976d0b836909ac330aad7a992b7a3CAS | 24670034PubMed |

[29]  T. Zhang, D. Bain, R. Hammack, R. D. Vidic, Analysis of radium-226 in high salinity wastewater from unconventional gas extraction by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 2969.
Analysis of radium-226 in high salinity wastewater from unconventional gas extraction by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhvV2isr0%3D&md5=491f992c8571aa2edaa588e33dbeb65aCAS | 25642997PubMed |

[30]  A. Murali Mohan, A. Hartsock, R. W. Hammack, R. D. Vidic, K. B. Gregory, Microbial communities in flowback water impoundments from hydraulic fracturing for recovery of shale gas. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2013, 86, 567.
Microbial communities in flowback water impoundments from hydraulic fracturing for recovery of shale gas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhslGgsrnE&md5=68196589784d53a316e6a84a8d6d8a4bCAS | 23875618PubMed |

[31]  K. G. Dahm, C. M. Van Straaten, J. Munakata-Marr, J. E. Drewes, Identifying well contamination through the use of 3-D fluorescence spectroscopy to classify coalbed methane produced water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 649.
Identifying well contamination through the use of 3-D fluorescence spectroscopy to classify coalbed methane produced water.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhslKhsrbL&md5=28d0ad3bbb40c3c1abbb2a356db957bcCAS | 23198677PubMed |

[32]  N. Youssef, M. S. Elshahed, M. J. McInerney, Microbial processes in oil fields: culprits, problems, and opportunities, in Advances in Applied Microbiology (Eds S. S. Allen, I. Laskin, M. G. Geoffrey) 2009, pp. 141–251 (Academic Press: New York).

[33]  D. J. Rozell, S. J. Reaven, Water pollution risk associated with natural gas extraction from the Marcellus Shale. Risk Anal. 2012, 32, 1382.
Water pollution risk associated with natural gas extraction from the Marcellus Shale.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22211399PubMed |

[34]  A. Vikram, D. Lipus, K. Bibby, Produced water exposure alters bacterial response to biocides. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 13001.
Produced water exposure alters bacterial response to biocides.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhs1OktLfK&md5=c011557d91376995afc700c3604c29d8CAS | 25279933PubMed |

[35]  C. E. Clark, J. A. Veil, Produced Water Volumes and Management Practices in the United States. ANL/EVS/R-09/1 2009 (US Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory: Lemont, IL, USA).

[36]  K. J. Ferrar, D. R. Michanowicz, C. L. Christen, N. Mulcahy, S. L. Malone, R. K. Sharma, Assessment of effluent contaminants from three facilities discharging Marcellus Shale wastewater to surface waters in Pennsylvania. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 3472.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXjsVWrur0%3D&md5=4d5bb6e2848630822d56c41b54925101CAS | 23458378PubMed |

[37]  J. Wilson, Y. Wang, J. VanBriesen, Sources of high total dissolved solids to drinking water supply in southwestern Pennsylvania. J. Environ. Eng. 2014, 140, B4014003.
Sources of high total dissolved solids to drinking water supply in southwestern Pennsylvania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[38]  K. M. Parker, T. Zeng, J. Harkness, A. Vengosh, W. A. Mitch, Enhanced formation of disinfection byproducts in shale gas wastewater-impacted drinking water supplies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 11161.
Enhanced formation of disinfection byproducts in shale gas wastewater-impacted drinking water supplies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhsFSitL%2FL&md5=755c11671547b37e43ddeb0938a93ae9CAS | 25203743PubMed |

[39]  S. States, G. Cyprych, M. Stoner, F. Wydra, J. Kuchta, J. Monnell, L. Casson, Marcellus Shale drilling and brominated THMs in Pittsburgh, PA, drinking water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2013, 105, E432.
Marcellus Shale drilling and brominated THMs in Pittsburgh, PA, drinking water.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[40]  Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) in Produced Water and Oil-Field Equipment – An Issue for the Energy Industry 1999 (US Geological Survey: Reston, VA).

[41]  C. G. Struchtemeyer, M. S. Elshahed, Bacterial communities associated with hydraulic fracturing fluids in thermogenic natural gas wells in North Central Texas, USA. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2012, 81, 13.
Bacterial communities associated with hydraulic fracturing fluids in thermogenic natural gas wells in North Central Texas, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XpslSjsbg%3D&md5=f7828b10203c9be89808bf87fb933d6dCAS | 22066833PubMed |

[42]  A. Murali Mohan, A. Hartsock, K. J. Bibby, R. W. Hammack, R. D. Vidic, K. B. Gregory, Microbial community changes in hydraulic fracturing fluids and produced water from shale gas extraction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 13141.
Microbial community changes in hydraulic fracturing fluids and produced water from shale gas extraction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhsFGqurbM&md5=75ece18625290ca8a0e9bc03f50d81baCAS | 24088205PubMed |

[43]  M. A. Cluff, A. Hartsock, J. D. MacRae, K. Carter, P. J. Mouser, Temporal changes in microbial ecology and geochemistry in produced water from hydraulically fractured Marcellus Shale gas wells. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 6508.
Temporal changes in microbial ecology and geochemistry in produced water from hydraulically fractured Marcellus Shale gas wells.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXnsVegsL4%3D&md5=de5b55d1c1d88f0de0c0896c51af3a3eCAS | 24803059PubMed |

[44]  A. Murali Mohan, K. J. Bibby, D. Lipus, R. W. Hammack, K. B. Gregory, The functional potential of microbial communities in hydraulic fracturing source water and produced water from natural gas extraction characterized by metagenomic sequencing. PLoS One 2014, 9, e107682.
The functional potential of microbial communities in hydraulic fracturing source water and produced water from natural gas extraction characterized by metagenomic sequencing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[45]  B. D. Lutz, A. N. Lewis, M. W. Doyle, Generation, transport, and disposal of wastewater associated with Marcellus Shale gas development. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 647.
Generation, transport, and disposal of wastewater associated with Marcellus Shale gas development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXptFWju7Y%3D&md5=af7eb55fa64748be153b8f037deff544CAS |

[46]  J.-P. Nicot, B. R. Scanlon, R. C. Reedy, R. A. Costley, Source and fate of hydraulic fracturing water in the Barnett Shale: a historical perspective. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 2464.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXht12ktr8%3D&md5=c362400a8ba5a545dd5d666f26627d35CAS | 24467212PubMed |

[47]  J. M. Silva, R. M. Gettings, W. L. Kostedt, V. H. Watkins, Produced water from hydrofracturing challenges and opportunities for reuse and recovery. The Bridge 2014, 44, 34.