Register      Login
The Rangeland Journal The Rangeland Journal Society
Journal of the Australian Rangeland Society
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Integrating animal welfare into wild herbivore management: lessons from the Australian Feral Camel Management Project

Jordan O. Hampton A B F , Bidda Jones C , Andrew L. Perry D , Corissa J. Miller A and Quentin Hart E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Ecotone Wildlife Veterinary Services, PO Box 76, Inverloch, Vic. 3996, Australia.

B Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.

C RSPCA Australia, PO Box 265, Deakin West, ACT 2600, Australia.

D Livestock Extension, PO Box 76, Inverloch, Vic. 3996, Australia.

E Ninti One Limited, PO Box 3971, Alice Springs, NT 0871, Australia.

F Corresponding author. Email: j.hampton@ecotonewildlife.com

The Rangeland Journal 38(2) 163-171 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ15079
Submitted: 10 August 2015  Accepted: 18 December 2015   Published: 4 March 2016

Abstract

The Australian Feral Camel Management Project (AFCMP) was initiated in 2009 to manage the growing impacts of feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Australia. One of the most important considerations for the project was achieving high standards of animal welfare and demonstrating this to stakeholders and the public. The novelty of feral camels as an invasive species meant that relatively little was known about the animal welfare aspects of the available management techniques. To address this knowledge gap, quantitative animal-based assessment tools were developed to allow independent observers to perform repeatable in situ field auditing of the two main control methods used: aerial (helicopter) shooting and live capture (mustering and transport for slaughter). Although observation protocols allowed most stages of aerial shooting (in situ killing) to be assessed, not all stages of live capture operations could be assessed (namely transport and slaughter at ex situ abattoirs) due to the limitations of the jurisdiction of the Australian Feral Camel Management Project. For assessments that were performed, audit results were made available to project partners to allow procedures to be reviewed and published through peer-reviewed literature to improve transparency. Empirical evidence produced through the audit system was also used to refine humaneness ranking assessments comparing management methods. We present the lessons learnt through the animal welfare approach of the AFCMP to assist future wild herbivore management programs.

Additional keywords: Camelus dromedarius, control, culling, mustering, transport.


References

ACT Government (2013). ‘Animal Welfare and Compliance Assessment of the 2013 Australian Capital Territory Kangaroo Conservation Cull.’ (ACT Territorial and Municipal Services: Canberra.)

Baker, S. E., and MacDonald, D. W. (2012). Not so humane mole tube traps. Animal Welfare 21, 613–615.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xhs1eisb%2FK&md5=d70dc0d55a1d98162a7f5c317f67570eCAS |

Baker, S. E., Sharp, T. M., and Macdonald, D. W. (2016). Assessing animal welfare impacts in the management of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), European moles (Talpa europaea) and carrion crows (Corvus corone). PloS one 11, e0146298.
| 26726808PubMed |

Beausoleil, N. J., and Mellor, D. J. (2015). Advantages and limitations of the Five Domains model for assessing welfare impacts associated with vertebrate pest control. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 63, 37–43.
Advantages and limitations of the Five Domains model for assessing welfare impacts associated with vertebrate pest control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXitVKrt7bM&md5=7f3a6e12873a286a7cef57af787f9072CAS | 25147947PubMed |

Ben-Ami, D., Boom, K., Boronyak, L., Townend, C., Ramp, D., Croft, D., and Bekoff, M. (2014). The welfare ethics of the commercial killing of free-ranging kangaroos: an evaluation of the benefits and costs of the industry. Animal Welfare 23, 1–10.
The welfare ethics of the commercial killing of free-ranging kangaroos: an evaluation of the benefits and costs of the industry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXisVCjsbo%3D&md5=27b2b35d16dd935314adc2ee5d74b0c0CAS |

Bradshaw, R. H., Hall, S. J. G., and Broom, D. M. (1996). Behavioural and cortisol response of pigs and sheep during transport. The Veterinary Record 138, 233–234.
Behavioural and cortisol response of pigs and sheep during transport.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK283ksValsQ%3D%3D&md5=776b116b7fc343b85eaae79d4aa646b2CAS | 8686140PubMed |

Broom, D. M. (1999). The welfare of vertebrate pests in relation to their management. In: ‘Advances in Vertebrate Pest Management’. (Eds D. P. Cowand and C. J. Feare.) pp. 309–329. (Filander Verlag: Fürth, Germany.)

Cattet, M., Boulanger, J., Stenhouse, G., Powell, R. A., and Reynolds-Hogland, M. J. (2008). An evaluation of long-term capture effects in ursids: implications for wildlife welfare and research. Journal of Mammalogy 89, 973–990.
An evaluation of long-term capture effects in ursids: implications for wildlife welfare and research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chapple, R. (2005). The politics of feral horse management in Guy Fawkes River National Park, NSW. Australian Zoologist 33, 233–246.
The politics of feral horse management in Guy Fawkes River National Park, NSW.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Daoust, P. Y., and Caraguel, C. (2012). The Canadian harp seal hunt: observations on the effectiveness of procedures to avoid poor animal welfare outcomes. Animal Welfare 21, 445–455.
The Canadian harp seal hunt: observations on the effectiveness of procedures to avoid poor animal welfare outcomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xhs1eisLbK&md5=1d0441fb96d39d7cb0821a20a1b8a59cCAS |

Daoust, P. Y., Caraguel, C., Fenton, H., Hammill, M. O., Roy, L. D., and Spears, J. (2013). ‘Assessment of current and alternative methods for killing young Grey Seals (Halichoerus grypus) during commercial harvest.’ Research Document 2012/132. (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat: Ottawa, Canada.)

Dawkins, M. S. (2006). A user’s guide to animal welfare science. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21, 77–82.
A user’s guide to animal welfare science.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

de Witte, K. (2009). Development of the Australian animal welfare standards and guidelines for the land transport of livestock: Process and philosophical considerations. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 4, 148–156.
Development of the Australian animal welfare standards and guidelines for the land transport of livestock: Process and philosophical considerations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

DeNicola, A. J., and Swihart, R. K. (1997). Capture-induced stress in white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25, 500–503.

Dollery, C. (2014). Horse control in Queensland National Parks. In: ‘16th Australasian Vertebrate Pest Conference’. (Ed. M. Gentle.) pp. 26–29. (Pullman King George Square: Brisbane, Qld.)

Drucker, A. G., Edwards, G. P., and Saalfeld, W. K. (2010). Economics of camel control in central Australia. The Rangeland Journal 32, 117–127.
Economics of camel control in central Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Edwards, G. P., Zeng, B., and Saalfeld, W. K. (2010). Evaluation of the impacts of feral camels. The Rangeland Journal 32, 43–54.
Evaluation of the impacts of feral camels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

English, A. W. (2000). ‘Report on the Cull of Feral Horses in Guy Fawkes River National Park in October 2000.’ (Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney: Sydney, NSW.)

Evans, S., Berry, J., Smith, B., and Esterman, A. (2004). Anonymity or transparency in reporting of medial error: a community-based survey in South Australia. The Medical Journal of Australia 180, 577–580.
| 15174989PubMed |

Farm Animal Welfare Council (1992). ‘The Five Freedoms.’ (Farm Animal Welfare Council: London.) Available at: www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm (accessed 2 April 2014).

Faye, B., Bengoumi, M., Cleradin, A., Tabarani, A., and Chilliard, Y. (2001). Body condition score in dromedary camel: A tool for management of reproduction. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture 13, 1–6.
Body condition score in dromedary camel: A tool for management of reproduction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gambell, R. (1993). International management of whales and whaling: an historical review of the regulation of commercial and aboriginal subsistence whaling. Arctic 46, 97–107.

Gilchrist, J. S. (2015). Stress physiology of game animal capture and cull: welfare and productivity for the wildlife industry. In: ‘Proceedings of Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) International Animal Welfare Science Symposium’. pp. 28. (UFAW: Wheathampstead, UK.)

Grandin, T. (1997). Assessment of stress during handling and transport. Journal of Animal Science 75, 249–257.
| 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXhtVKisb0%3D&md5=2202f9cd6c511ba9638d66bccbfc6415CAS | 9027573PubMed |

Grandin, T. (2010). Auditing animal welfare at slaughter plants. Meat Science 86, 56–65.
Auditing animal welfare at slaughter plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20599326PubMed |

Greene, E. A., Heleski, C. R., Ralston, S. L., and Stull, C. L. (2011). Academic assessment of equine welfare during the gather process of the Bureau of Land Management’s wild horse and burro program. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31, 352–353.
Academic assessment of equine welfare during the gather process of the Bureau of Land Management’s wild horse and burro program.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Greene, E. A., Heleski, C. R., Ralston, S. L., and Stull, C. L. (2013). Independent observer pilot program: an objective evaluation method for determining humane handling and welfare during wild horse gathers. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 8, e7.
Independent observer pilot program: an objective evaluation method for determining humane handling and welfare during wild horse gathers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hampson, B. A., Zabek, M. A., Pollitt, C. C., and Nock, B. (2011). Health and behaviour consequences of feral horse relocation. The Rangeland Journal 33, 173–180.
Health and behaviour consequences of feral horse relocation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hampton, J. O., Cowled, B. D., Perry, A. L., Miller, C. J., Jones, B., and Hart, Q. (2014). A quantitative analysis of animal welfare outcomes in helicopter shooting: a case study with feral dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Wildlife Research 41, 127–145.
A quantitative analysis of animal welfare outcomes in helicopter shooting: a case study with feral dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hart, Q., and Bubb, A. (2016). Effective collaboration and governance processes to underpin large-scale natural resource management projects: the Australian Feral Camel Management Project experience. The Rangeland Journal 38, 117–123.

Hart, Q., Jones, B., Hampton, J. O., and Gee, P. (2013). Case Study: Ensuring Acceptable Animal Welfare Standards under the Australian Feral Camel Management Project. Department of Land Resource Management, Northern Territory Government, Australia and Australian Feral Camel Management Project. (Ninti One: Alice Springs, NT.)

Jacques, C. N., Jenks, J. A., Deperno, C. S., Sievers, J. D., Grovenburg, T. W., Brinkman, T. J., Swanson, C. C., and Stillings, B. A. (2009). Evaluating ungulate mortality associated with helicopter net‐gun captures in the northern Great Plains. The Journal of Wildlife Management 73, 1282–1291.
Evaluating ungulate mortality associated with helicopter net‐gun captures in the northern Great Plains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson, C. B., Wilson, P. R., Woodbury, M. R., and Caulkett, N. A. (2005). Comparison of analgesic techniques for antler removal in halothane‐anaesthetized red deer (Cervus elaphus): electroencephalographic responses. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32, 61–71.
Comparison of analgesic techniques for antler removal in halothane‐anaesthetized red deer (Cervus elaphus): electroencephalographic responses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15762911PubMed |

Kelly, D. (2005). ‘Report into the Camel Program Witjera National Park May 2005.’ (South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage: Adelaide, SA.)

Kock, M. D., Jessup, D. A., Clark, R. K., Franti, C. E., and Weaver, R. A. (1987). Capture methods in five subspecies of free-ranging bighorn sheep: an evaluation of drop-net, drive-net, chemical immobilization and the net-gun. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23, 634–640.
Capture methods in five subspecies of free-ranging bighorn sheep: an evaluation of drop-net, drive-net, chemical immobilization and the net-gun.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaL1c%2FmtlSlsg%3D%3D&md5=f0fad1fc422349706c4f8ebed186d26fCAS | 3682090PubMed |

Lapidge, S. J., Eason, C. T., and Humphrys, S. T. (2010). A review of chemical, biological and fertility control options for the camel in Australia. The Rangeland Journal 32, 95–115.
A review of chemical, biological and fertility control options for the camel in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lewison, R. L., Crowder, L. B., Read, A. J., and Freeman, S. A. (2004). Understanding impacts of fisheries bycatch on marine megafauna. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19, 598–604.
Understanding impacts of fisheries bycatch on marine megafauna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Linklater, W. L., and Cameron, E. Z. (2002). Escape behaviour of feral horses during a helicopter count. Wildlife Research 29, 221–224.
Escape behaviour of feral horses during a helicopter count.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Littin, K., Fisher, P., Beausoleil, N. J., and Sharp, T. (2014). Welfare aspects of vertebrate pest control and culling: ranking control techniques for humaneness. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics) 33, 281–289.
| 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2cbgt1Sktw%3D%3D&md5=632879943e48667e929728ce6db51a40CAS |

Mellor, D. J., and Littin, K. E. (2004). Using science to support ethical decisions promoting humane livestock slaughter and vertebrate pest control. Animal Welfare 13, 127–132.

Mellor, D. J., and Reid, C. S. W. (1994). Concepts of animal well-being and predicting the impact of procedures on experimental animals. In: ‘Improving the Well-being of Animals in the Research Environment’. (Eds R. M. Baker, G. Jenkin and D. J. Mellor.) pp. 3–18. (Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching: Glen Osmond, SA.)

Muth, R. M., and Jamison, W. V. (2000). On the destiny of deer camps and duck blinds: the rise of the animal rights movement and the future of wildlife conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28, 841–851.

Ohl, F., and Van der Staay, F. J. (2012). Animal welfare: At the interface between science and society. Veterinary Journal 192, 13–19.
Animal welfare: At the interface between science and society.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC38zks1elsw%3D%3D&md5=f9f5e0dd20816f1762dea955009e6d86CAS |

Petherick, J. C. (2005). Animal welfare issues associated with extensive livestock production: The northern Australian beef cattle industry. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 92, 211–234.
Animal welfare issues associated with extensive livestock production: The northern Australian beef cattle industry.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pollard, J. C., Littlejohn, R. P., Asher, G. W., Pearse, A. J. T., Stevenson-Barry, J. M., McGregor, S. K., Manley, T. R., Duncan, S. J., Sutton, C. M., Pollock, K. L., and Prescott, J. (2002). A comparison of biochemical and meat quality variables in red deer (Cervus elaphus) following either slaughter at pasture or killing at a deer slaughter plant. Meat Science 60, 85–94.
A comparison of biochemical and meat quality variables in red deer (Cervus elaphus) following either slaughter at pasture or killing at a deer slaughter plant.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXnt1Wjsrg%3D&md5=d239c707ebe945cd4dce43986df3ab74CAS | 22063109PubMed |

Pople, A. R., and McLeod, S. R. (2010). Demography of feral camels in central Australia and its relevance to population control. The Rangeland Journal 32, 11–19.
Demography of feral camels in central Australia and its relevance to population control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Primary Industries Standing Committee (2006). ‘The Camel (Camelus dromedarius).’ 2nd edn. Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic.)

RSPCA Australia (2002). ‘Kangaroo shooting code compliance.’ (RSPCA Australia: Canberra, ACT.) Available at: www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/wildlife-trade/publications/kangaroo-report/index.html (accessed 18 August 2012).

Sharp, T. (2010). ‘Standard operating procedure CAM002: aerial shooting of camels.’ (Invasive Animals CRC: Canberra, ACT.) Available at: www.feral.org.au/aerial-shooting-of-camels (accessed 2 April 2014).

Sharp, T., and Saunders, G. (2008). ‘A Model for Assessing the Relative Humaneness of Pest Animal Control Methods.’ (Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry: Canberra, ACT.)

Sharp, T., and Saunders, G. (2010). ‘Standard Operating Procedure CAM003: Mustering of Camels.’ (Invasive Animals CRC: Canberra, ACT.) Available at: www.feral.org.au/aerial-shooting-of-camels (accessed 2 April 2014).

Sharp, T., and Saunders, G. (2011). ‘A Model for Assessing the Relative Humaneness of Pest Animal Control Methods.’ 2nd edn. (Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry: Canberra, ACT.)

Sharp, T. M., McLeod, S. R., Leggett, K. E. A., and Gibson, T. J. (2015). Evaluation of a spring-powered captive bolt gun for killing kangaroo pouch young. Wildlife Research 41, 623–632.
Evaluation of a spring-powered captive bolt gun for killing kangaroo pouch young.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Spencer, P., Giustiniano, D., Hampton, J. O., Gee, P., Burrows, N., Rose, K., Martin, G. R., and Woolnough, A. P. (2012). Identification and management of a single large population of wild dromedary camels. The Journal of Wildlife Management 76, 1254–1263.
Identification and management of a single large population of wild dromedary camels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stafford, K. J., Mellor, D. J., Todd, S. E., Gregory, N. G., Bruce, R. A., and Ward, R. N. (2001). The physical state and plasma biochemical profile of young calves on arrival at a slaughter plant. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 49, 142–149.
The physical state and plasma biochemical profile of young calves on arrival at a slaughter plant.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2MznsVWjsg%3D%3D&md5=1296ced0a9c93be7afcf58e84705547eCAS | 16032182PubMed |

Stormer, F. A., Kirkpatrick, C. M., and Hoekstra, T. W. (1979). Hunter-inflicted wounding of white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 7, 10–16.

Urquhart, K. A., and McKendrick, I. J. (2003). Survey of permanent wound tracts in the carcases of culled wild red deer in Scotland. The Veterinary Record 152, 497–501.
Survey of permanent wound tracts in the carcases of culled wild red deer in Scotland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3s3ht1aktQ%3D%3D&md5=4577ffe392f877f296d3c1e4ae9972a1CAS | 12733558PubMed |

Urquhart, K. A., and McKendrick, I. J. (2006). Prevalence of ‘head shooting’ and the characteristics of the wounds in culled wild Scottish red deer. The Veterinary Record 159, 75–79.
Prevalence of ‘head shooting’ and the characteristics of the wounds in culled wild Scottish red deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28vitlegsQ%3D%3D&md5=6997355a9014df4e2f1222704e4707a5CAS | 16844818PubMed |

Van Aarde, R., Whyte, I., and Pimm, S. (1999). Culling and the dynamics of the Kruger National Park African elephant population. Animal Conservation 2, 287–294.
Culling and the dynamics of the Kruger National Park African elephant population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waas, J. R., Ingram, J. R., and Matthews, L. R. (1999). Real-time physiological responses of red deer to translocations. The Journal of Wildlife Management 63, 1152–1162.
Real-time physiological responses of red deer to translocations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Walker, K. A., Trites, A. W., Haulena, M., and Weary, D. M. (2012). A review of the effects of different marking and tagging techniques on marine mammals. Wildlife Research 39, 15–30.
A review of the effects of different marking and tagging techniques on marine mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Warburton, B., and Norton, B. G. (2009). Towards a knowledge‐based ethic for lethal control of nuisance wildlife. The Journal of Wildlife Management 73, 158–164.
Towards a knowledge‐based ethic for lethal control of nuisance wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Whaytt, H. R., Main, D. C. J., Green, L. E., and Webster, A. J. F. (2003). Animal-based measures for the assessment of welfare state of dairy cattle, pigs and laying hens: consensus of expert opinion. Animal Welfare 12, 205–217.

Whisson, D. A., Holland, G. J., and Carlyon, K. (2012). Translocation of overabundant species: implications for translocated individuals. The Journal of Wildlife Management 76, 1661–1669.
Translocation of overabundant species: implications for translocated individuals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zeng, B., and Gerritsen, R. (2013). Inadequate contribution of commercial harvest to the management of feral camels in Australia. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 56, 1212–1224.
Inadequate contribution of commercial harvest to the management of feral camels in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |