Register      Login
Soil Research Soil Research Society
Soil, land care and environmental research
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Response of soil nitrous oxide flux to nitrogen fertiliser application and legume rotation in a semi-arid climate, identified by smoothing spline models

Sally Jane Officer A , Frances Phillips B F , Gavin Kearney C , Roger Armstrong D E , John Graham A and Debra Partington A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, PMB 105, Hamilton, Vic. 3300, Australia.

B School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.

C 36 Paynes Road, Hamilton, Vic. 3300, Australia.

D Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, PMB 260, Horsham, Vic. 3401, Australia.

E School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne Campus, Bundoora, Vic. 3086, Australia.

F Corresponding author. Email: francesp@uow.edu.au

Soil Research 53(3) 227-241 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR12049
Submitted: 2 March 2012  Accepted: 17 December 2014   Published: 7 May 2015

Abstract

Although large areas of semi-arid land are extensively cropped, few studies have investigated the effect of nitrogen (N) fertiliser on nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in these regions (Galbally et al. 2010). These emissions need to be measured in order to estimate N losses and calculate national greenhouse gas inventories. We examined the effect of different agronomic management practices applied to wheat (Triticum aestivum) grown on an alkaline Vertosol in south-eastern Australia on N2O emissions. In 2007, N2O emissions were measured over 12 months, during which N fertiliser (urea) was applied at sowing or N fertiliser plus supplementary irrigation (50 mm) was applied during the vegetative stage and compared with a treatment of no N fertiliser or irrigation. In a second experiment (2008), the effect of source of N on N2O emissions was examined. Wheat was grown on plots where either a pulse (field peas, Pisum sativum) or pasture legume (barrel medic, Medicago truncatula) crop had been sown in the previous season compared with a non-legume crop (canola, Brassica napus). To account for the N supplied by the legume phase, N fertiliser (50 kg N ha–1 as urea) was applied only to the wheat in the plots previously sown to canola. Fluxes of N2O were measured on a sub-daily basis (up to 16 measurements per chamber) by using automated chamber enclosures and a tuneable diode laser, and treatment differences were evaluated by a linear mixed model including cubic smoothing splines. Fluxes were low and highly variable, ranging from –3 to 28 ng N2O-N m–2 s–1. The application of N fertiliser at sowing increased N2O emissions for ~2 months after the fertiliser was applied. Applying irrigation (50 mm) during the vegetative growth stage produced a temporary (~1-week) but non-significant increase in N2O emissions compared with plots that received N fertiliser at sowing but were not irrigated. Including a legume in the rotation significantly increased soil inorganic N at sowing of the following wheat crop by 38 kg N ha–1 (field peas) or 57 kg ha–1 (barrel medic) compared with a canola crop. However, N2O emissions were greater in wheat plots where N fertiliser was applied than where wheat was sown into legume plots where no N fertiliser was applied. Over the 2 years of the field study, N2O emissions attributed to fertiliser ranged from 41 to 111 g N2O-N ha–1, and averaged of 75 g N2O-N ha–1 or 0.15% of the applied N fertiliser. Our findings confirm that the proportion of N fertiliser emitted as N2O from rainfed grain crops grown in Australian semi-arid regions is less than the international average of 1.0%.

Additional keywords: chamber, cubic smoothing spline, fertiliser emissions factor, greenhouse gas, N2O, nitrous oxide, soil, south-eastern Australia, wheat.


References

ABARES (2012) Australian Crop Report, June 2012. No. 162. Australian Bureau of Agricultural Resources Economics and Sciences, Canberra, ACT.

Barker-Reid F, Gates WP, Wilson K, Baigent R, Galbally IE, Meyer CP, Weeks IA, Eckard RJ (2005) Soil nitrous oxide emissions from rain-fed wheat in SE Australia. In ‘Science, control, policy and implementation. Fourth International Symposium Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases (NCGG-4)’. pp. 25–32. (Millpress: Rotterdam, the Netherlands)

Barton L, Kiese R, Gatter D, Butterbach-Bahl K, Buck R, Hinz C, Murphy D (2008) Nitrous oxide emissions from a cropped soil in a semi-arid climate. Global Change Biology 14, 177–192.
Nitrous oxide emissions from a cropped soil in a semi-arid climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barton L, Butterbach-Bahl K, Kiese R, Murphy D (2011) Nitrous oxide fluxes from a grain–legume crop (narrow-leafed lupin) grown in a semi-arid climate. Global Change Biology 17, 1153–1166.
Nitrous oxide fluxes from a grain–legume crop (narrow-leafed lupin) grown in a semi-arid climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barton L, Murphy DV, Butterbach-Bahl K (2013) Influence of crop rotation and liming on greenhouse gas emissions from semi-arid soil. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 167, 23–32.
Influence of crop rotation and liming on greenhouse gas emissions from semi-arid soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXktlGjt7c%3D&md5=35c618fd963ca2b4848ef79e7817dee0CAS |

Blackmer AM, Bremner JM, Schmidt EL (1980) Production of nitrous oxide by ammonia-oxidizing chemmoautotrophic microorganisms in soil. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40, 1060–1066.

Bouwman AF, Boumans LJM, Batjes NH (2002a) Emissions of N2O and NO from fertilized fields. Summary of available measurement data. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16, 6-1–6-13.
Emissions of N2O and NO from fertilized fields. Summary of available measurement data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bouwman AF, Boumans LJM, Batjes NH (2002b) Modeling global annual N2O and NO emissions from fertilized fields. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16, 28-1–28-9.
Modeling global annual N2O and NO emissions from fertilized fields.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bureau of Meteorology (2012) Summary statistics for Horsham Polkemmet Rd weather station. Bureau of Meteorology. Available at: www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_079023.shtml (accessed 9 July 2012)

Cawood RJ (1996) ‘Climate, temperature and crop production in south-eastern Australia.’ Principals of Sustainable Agriculture 7. (Agriculture Victoria: Melbourne)

Conen F, Smith KA (2000) An explanation of linear increases in gas concentration under closed chambers used to measure gas exchange between soil and the atmosphere. European Journal of Soil Science 51, 111–117.
An explanation of linear increases in gas concentration under closed chambers used to measure gas exchange between soil and the atmosphere.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXisVKmsbw%3D&md5=a2dd203c6162ab6f2d085fe985076d5eCAS |

Connor DJ (2004) Designing cropping systems for efficient use of limited water in southern Australia. European Journal Agronomy 21, 419–431.

Dalal RC, Wang W, Robertson GP, Parton WJ (2003) Nitrous oxide emission from Australian agricultural lands and mitigation options: a review. Australian Journal of Soil Research 41, 165–195.
Nitrous oxide emission from Australian agricultural lands and mitigation options: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXktFKisr8%3D&md5=207b19866924d44a696cc4ace7867060CAS |

Davidson EA (2009) The contribution of manure and fertilizer nitrogen to atmospheric nitrous oxide since 1860. Nature Geoscience 2, 659–662.
The contribution of manure and fertilizer nitrogen to atmospheric nitrous oxide since 1860.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhtVKktb7P&md5=5698d3544d5e69a8a4823454480b9f78CAS |

Dick J, Kaya B, Soutoura M, Skiba U, Smith R, Niang A, Tabo R (2008) The contribution of agricultural practices to nitrous oxide emissions in semi-arid Mali. Soil Use and Management 24, 292–301.
The contribution of agricultural practices to nitrous oxide emissions in semi-arid Mali.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dobbie KE, Smith KA (2003) Nitrous oxide emission factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables. Global Change Biology 9, 204–218.
Nitrous oxide emission factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Drewitt G, Warland JS (2007) Continuous measurements of belowground nitrous oxide concentrations. Soil Science Society of America Journal 71, 1–7.
Continuous measurements of belowground nitrous oxide concentrations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhsVOrt70%3D&md5=1704586f73a50acfd5e684ff203676deCAS |

Flechard CR, Neftel A, Jocher M, Ammann C, Fuhrer J (2005) Bi-directional soil/atmosphere N2O exchange over two mown grassland systems with contrasting management practices. Global Change Biology 11, 2114–2127.
Bi-directional soil/atmosphere N2O exchange over two mown grassland systems with contrasting management practices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Freney JR, Denmead OT, Simpson JR (1979) Nitrous oxide emission from soils at low moisture contents. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 11, 167–173.
Nitrous oxide emission from soils at low moisture contents.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaE1MXktVCns7g%3D&md5=8549a98505df96069b90cccc2e8c4188CAS |

Freney JR, Simpson JR, Denmead OT, Muirhead WA, Leuning R (1985) Transformations and transfers of nitrogen after irrigating a cracking clay soil with a urea solution. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 36, 684–694.
Transformations and transfers of nitrogen after irrigating a cracking clay soil with a urea solution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Galbally IE, Kirstine WV, Meyer CP, Wang YP (2008) Soil–atmosphere trace gas exchange in semiarid and arid zones. Journal of Environmental Quality 37, 599–607.
Soil–atmosphere trace gas exchange in semiarid and arid zones.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjsVWkt7s%3D&md5=83d3077c07f489e0816a35d52c2e0392CAS | 18396546PubMed |

Galbally IE, Meyer CP, Wang YP, Kirstine WV (2010) Soil–atmosphere exchange of CH4, CO, N2O and NO x and the effects of land-use change in the semiarid Mallee system in Southeastern Australia. Global Change Biology 16, 2407–2419.

Gilmour AR, Gogel BJ, Cullis BR, Thompson R (2006) ‘ASReml User Guide 2.0.’ (VSN International: Hemel Hempstead, UK)

Hyde BP, Hawkins MJ, Fanning AF, Noonan D, Ryan M, O’Toole P, Carton OT (2006) Nitrous oxide emissions from a fertilized and grazed grassland in the South East of Ireland. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 75, 187–200.
Nitrous oxide emissions from a fertilized and grazed grassland in the South East of Ireland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xot12jtr4%3D&md5=3fd8c4ec0fb6163a275f514313ee6861CAS |

IPCC (2006) N2O Emissions from managed soils, and CO2 emissions from lime and urea application. In ‘2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Vol. 4. Agriculture forestry and other land use’. Ch. 11. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, International Panel on Climate Change (Eds HS Eggleston, L Buendia, K Miwa, T Ngara, K Tanabe) p. 54 (IGES: Hayama, Japan)

Isbell RF (2002) ‘The Australian Soil Classification.’ Revised edn (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)

Kaiser E-A, Kohrs K, Kücke M, Schnug E, Heinemeyer O, Munch JC (1998) Nitrous oxide release from arable soil: importance of N-fertilization, crops and temporal variation. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 30, 1553–1563.
Nitrous oxide release from arable soil: importance of N-fertilization, crops and temporal variation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXkvV2ns7s%3D&md5=9d7288aad18d26fe0fcf66f91f748de9CAS |

Kastanek FJ, Nielsen DR (2001) Description of soil water characteristics using cubic spline interpolation. Soil Science Society of America Journal 65, 279–283.
Description of soil water characteristics using cubic spline interpolation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xpt1Cq&md5=e8e614771266ba56f607738d9854876cCAS |

Klute A (1986) Water retention: laboratory methods. In ‘Methods of soil analysis. Part 1. Physical and mineralogical methods’. 2nd edn (Ed. A Klute) pp. 635–662. (American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA)

Kroeze C, Mosier A, Bouwman L (1999) Closing the N2O budget: a retrospective analysis 1500–1994. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13, 1–8.
Closing the N2O budget: a retrospective analysis 1500–1994.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhs12kt70%3D&md5=ab269f3293ccdb727822cce92cda0228CAS |

Ladd JN, Amato M (1986) The fate of nitrogen from legume and fertilizer sources in soils successively cropped with wheat under field conditions. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 18, 417–425.
The fate of nitrogen from legume and fertilizer sources in soils successively cropped with wheat under field conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Linn DM, Doran JW (1984) Effect of water-filled pore space on carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide production in tilled and non-tilled soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 48, 1267–1272.
Effect of water-filled pore space on carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide production in tilled and non-tilled soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXhtFaitL4%3D&md5=18a23fdbbfce1e55cb8968223f49084bCAS |

Magalhães AM, Nelson DW, Chalk PM (1987) Nitrogen transformations during hydrolysis and nitrification of urea. 1. Effect of soil properties and fertiliser placement. Fertilizer Research 11, 161–172.
Nitrogen transformations during hydrolysis and nitrification of urea. 1. Effect of soil properties and fertiliser placement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Martin J, Imhof M, Lourey R, Nink R, De Plater K, Rampant P, Thompson S, Alexander S (1996) ‘Major agricultural soils of the Wimmera Irrigation Area.’ Natural Resources Monitoring and Assessment (NRMA) Team (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria: Melbourne)

McNeill AM, Zhu C, Fillery IRP (1997) Use of in situ 15N-labelling to estimate the total below-ground nitrogen of pasture legumes in intact soil-plant systems. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 48, 295–304.
Use of in situ 15N-labelling to estimate the total below-ground nitrogen of pasture legumes in intact soil-plant systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Meyer CP, Galbally IE, Wang Y, Weeks IA, Jamie I, Griffith DWT (2001) Two automatic chamber techniques for measuring soil-atmosphere exchanges of trace gases and results of their use in the OASIS field experiment. CSIRO Atmospheric Research Technical Paper No. 51.

Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K (1998) Assessing and mitigating N2O emissions from agricultural soils. Climatic Change 40, 7–38.
Assessing and mitigating N2O emissions from agricultural soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmslWgu7w%3D&md5=6957df119e4137bf600a8367239eaab5CAS |

O’Leary GJ, Connor DJ (1997) Stubble retention and tillage in a semi-arid environment: 2. Soil mineral nitrogen accumulation during fallow. Field Crops Research 52, 221–229.

Orchard BA, Cullis BR, Coombes NE, Virgona JM, Klein T (2000) Grazing management studies within the Temperate Pasture Sustainability Key Program: experimental design and statistical analysis. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 143–154.
Grazing management studies within the Temperate Pasture Sustainability Key Program: experimental design and statistical analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Parkin TB (1987) Soil microsites as a source of denitrification variability. Soil Science Society of America Journal 51, 1194–1199.
Soil microsites as a source of denitrification variability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXmtlGnsbo%3D&md5=c6cfb230eef50b76f8235a61d230cc9dCAS |

Peoples MB, Baldock JA (2001) Nitrogen dynamics of pastures: nitrogen fixation inputs, the impact of legumes on soil nitrogen fertility, and the contributions of fixed nitrogen to Australian farming systems. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 327–346.
Nitrogen dynamics of pastures: nitrogen fixation inputs, the impact of legumes on soil nitrogen fertility, and the contributions of fixed nitrogen to Australian farming systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXkt1Crtrw%3D&md5=52c55c5549a64093f2c22c0a2e8e69dbCAS |

Phillips FA, Leuning R, Baigent R, Kelly KB, Denmead OT (2007) Nitrous oxide flux measurements from an intensively managed irrigated pasture using micrometeorological techniques. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 143, 92–105.
Nitrous oxide flux measurements from an intensively managed irrigated pasture using micrometeorological techniques.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rayment GE, Higginson FR (1992) ‘Australian laboratory handbook of soil and water chemical methods.’ (Inkata Press: Melbourne)

Rochester IJ, Constable GA, Macleod DA (1992) Preferential nitrate immobilization in alkaline soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 30, 737–749.
Preferential nitrate immobilization in alkaline soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXlvVOntw%3D%3D&md5=d9ed7aca6e0e3b00183f21ba7b539bf0CAS |

Sadras VO, Rodriguez D (2010) Modelling the nitrogen-driven trade-off between nitrogen utilisation efficiency and water use efficiency of wheat in eastern Australia. Field Crops Research 118, 297–305.

Saxton KE, Porter MA, McMahon TA (1992) Climatic impacts on dryland winter wheat yields by daily soil water and crop stress simulations. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 58, 177–192.
Climatic impacts on dryland winter wheat yields by daily soil water and crop stress simulations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schwenke G, Haigh B, McMullen G, Herridge D (2010) Soil nitrous oxide emissions under dryland N-fertilised canola and N2-fixing chickpea in the northern grains region, Australia. In ‘Proceedings 19th World Congress of Soil Science: Soil Solutions for a Changing World’. 1–6 August 2010, Brisbane, Australia. (International Union of Soil Sciences)

Shaw LJ, Nicol GW, Smith Z, Fear J, Prosser JI, Baggs EM (2006) Nitrosospira spp. can produce nitrous oxide via a nitrifier denitrification pathway. Environmental Microbiology 8, 214–222.
Nitrosospira spp. can produce nitrous oxide via a nitrifier denitrification pathway.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XisFWrsrw%3D&md5=046052e4bf939c619652b5e31ee9bd43CAS | 16423010PubMed |

Stehfest E, Bouwman L (2006) N2O and NO emission from agricultural fields and soils under natural vegetation: summarizing available measurement data and modeling of global annual emissions. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 74, 207–228.
N2O and NO emission from agricultural fields and soils under natural vegetation: summarizing available measurement data and modeling of global annual emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XnvVynur8%3D&md5=a8a8bee98386ec6513f73ad75f7ae497CAS |

van Herwaarden AF, Farquhar GD, Angus JF, Richards RA, Howe GN (1998) ‘Haying-off, the negative grain yield response of dryland wheat to nitrogen fertiliser. I. Biomass, grain yield, and water use. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 49, 1067–1081.
‘Haying-off, the negative grain yield response of dryland wheat to nitrogen fertiliser. I. Biomass, grain yield, and water use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Venterea RT, Spokas KA, Baker JM (2009) Accuracy and precision analysis of chamber-based nitrous oxide gas flux estimates. Soil Science Society of America Journal 73, 1087–1093.
Accuracy and precision analysis of chamber-based nitrous oxide gas flux estimates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXos1Ggsr0%3D&md5=581367afd505ef41ffd4ab115ae0a287CAS |

Verbyla AP, Cullis BR, Kenward MG, Welham SJ (1999) The analysis of designed experiments and longitudinal data by using smoothing splines. Applied Statistics 48, 269–311.
The analysis of designed experiments and longitudinal data by using smoothing splines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wrage N, Velthof GL, van Beusichem ML, Oenema O (2001) Role of nitrifier denitrification in the production of nitrous oxide. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 33, 1723–1732.
Role of nitrifier denitrification in the production of nitrous oxide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXotFOlurg%3D&md5=8ad10f82d9a61cc28da49460af1e0390CAS |