Register      Login
Wildlife Research Wildlife Research Society
Ecology, management and conservation in natural and modified habitats
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Effects of a GnRH vaccine on the movement and activity of free-living wild boar (Sus scrofa)

Roger J. Quy A , Giovanna Massei A , Mark S. Lambert A D , Julia Coats A , Lowell A. Miller B C and David P. Cowan A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1 LZ, UK.

B USDA APHIS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA.

C Present address: Circle M Products, 12242 County Road 66, Greeley, CO 80631, USA.

D Corresponding author. Email: mark.lambert@ahvla.gsi.gov.uk

Wildlife Research 41(3) 185-193 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR14035
Submitted: 21 February 2014  Accepted: 30 June 2014   Published: 7 August 2014

Journal Compilation © CSIRO Publishing 2014 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND

Abstract

Context: Fertility control is being promoted as a non-lethal means of managing wildlife populations. We recently evaluated a single-dose injectable immunocontraceptive vaccine (GonaCon™) on captive female wild boar for effectiveness and potential side effects; reproductive output was inhibited for 4–6 years, with no obvious detrimental effects on physiology and behaviour.

Aims: We injected individual free-living wild boar individuals with the fertility-control vaccine GonaCon™ to examine its effectiveness (measured as raised levels of GnRH antibodies) and looked for potential changes in movement and activity patterns.

Methods: We trapped, fitted telemetry devices to, and released wild boar individuals living in woodland in the West Midlands region of England between 2006 and 2010. We compared data on movements and activity among 10 adult females treated with the vaccine and 11 controls treated with saline only. We measured anti-GnRH antibody titres in six recaptured boar individuals as an indicator of the effectiveness of the vaccine.

Key results: Post-treatment GnRH antibody titres varied among the boar individuals; four of five treated sows resampled between 9 and 30 weeks post-injection had antibody titres high enough to block reproduction (detectable at 1 : 32 000–1 : 64 000 dilution). At least three treated females were pregnant at the time of vaccination; there was no subsequent evidence that the vaccine interfered with pregnancy. According to the distances moved per hour over a 24-h cycle and the daily activity cycle in relation to season, there were no differences in the behaviour of treated and control females that were likely to be biologically significant. The behaviour of two treated females monitored soon after vaccination and again 12 months later also showed no major differences.

Conclusions: Free-living wild boar responded to treatment with a 1.0-mL (1000 µg) dose of an anti-GnRH vaccine and no major adverse effects on activity and movement were subsequently detected.

Implications: Our results indicated that the vaccine could be more widely evaluated in the field against overabundant or nuisance populations. Such populations are increasingly found in urban areas and parks, where culling may not be an option. We suggest that further refinement of this approach for managing wild boar populations, including development of an oral vaccine, are warranted.


References

APHIS (2006). ‘GonaCon™—Birth Control for Deer: Questions and Answers. USDA–APHIS Fact Sheets on Wildlife Damage Management. Paper 7.’ Available at http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usdaaphisfactsheets/7 [verified 8 July 2014].

Bouldoire, J.-L., and Vassant, J. (1989). ‘Le Sanglier.’ (Hatier: Paris.)

Campbell, T. A., Long, D. B., and Massei, G. (2011). Efficacy of the boar-operated-system to deliver baits to feral swine. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 98, 243–249.
Efficacy of the boar-operated-system to deliver baits to feral swine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21176854PubMed |

Cargnelutti, B., Coulon, A., Hewison, A. J. M., Goulard, M., Angibault, J.-M., and Morellet, N. (2007). Testing global positioning system performance for wildlife monitoring using mobile collars and known reference points. The Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 1380–1387.
Testing global positioning system performance for wildlife monitoring using mobile collars and known reference points.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

CSL (2005). Investigating capture and removal strategies for wild boar at low density. Central Science Laboratory (now National Wildlife Management Centre, AHVLA) project report to Defra. Available at http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WM0308_2753_FRP.doc [verified 8 July 2014].

Fagerstone, K. A., Miller, L., Bynum, K., Eisemann, J., and Yoder, C. (2006). When, where and for what wildlife species will contraception be a useful management approach. In ‘Proceedings of the 22nd Vertebrate Pest Conference’ 2006. (Eds R. Timm and J. O’Brien.) pp. 45–54. (University of California: Davis, CA.)

Gethöffer, F., Sodeikat, G., and Pohlmeyer, K. (2007). Reproductive parameters of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in three different parts of Germany. European Journal of Wildlife Research 53, 287–297.
Reproductive parameters of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in three different parts of Germany.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gray, M. E., and Cameron, E. Z. (2010). Does contraceptive treatment in wildlife result in side effects? A review of quantitative and anecdotal evidence. Reproduction 139, 45–55.
Does contraceptive treatment in wildlife result in side effects? A review of quantitative and anecdotal evidence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXovVWntQ%3D%3D&md5=e46bcf046f2a32f7203c7215ace1595fCAS | 19656957PubMed |

Gray, M.E., Thain, D.S., Cameron, E.Z., and Miller, L.A. (2010). Multi-year fertility reduction in free-roaming feral horses with single-injection immunocontraceptive formulations. Wildlife Research 37, 475–481.
Multi-year fertility reduction in free-roaming feral horses with single-injection immunocontraceptive formulations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVCht7%2FI&md5=c3e9661701e7683e8c26875df48ef2d1CAS |

Henry, V. (1968). Length of estrous cycle and gestation in European wild hogs. The Journal of Wildlife Management 32, 406–408.
Length of estrous cycle and gestation in European wild hogs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Holland, E.P., Aegerter, J.N., and Smith, G.C. (2007). Spatial sensitivity of a generic population model, using wild boar (Sus scrofa) as a test case. Ecological Modelling 205, 146–158.
Spatial sensitivity of a generic population model, using wild boar (Sus scrofa) as a test case.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Holland, E.P., Burrow, J.F., Dytham, C., and Aegerter, J.N. (2009). Modelling with uncertainty: introducing a probabilistic framework to predict animal population dynamics. Ecological Modelling 220, 1203–1217.
Modelling with uncertainty: introducing a probabilistic framework to predict animal population dynamics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jacob, J., Matulessy, J., and Sudarmaji, (2004). Effects of imposed sterility on movement patterns of female ricefield rats. The Journal of Wildlife Management 68, 1138–1144.
Effects of imposed sterility on movement patterns of female ricefield rats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kenward, R., Walls, S., South, A., and Casey, N. (2008). ‘Ranges8: For the Analysis of Tracking and Location Data. Online Manual.’ (Anatrack Limited: Wareham, UK.)

Keuling, O., Stier, N., and Roth, M. (2008a). Annual and seasonal space use of different age classes of female wild boar Sus scrofa L. European Journal of Wildlife Research 54, 403–412.
Annual and seasonal space use of different age classes of female wild boar Sus scrofa L.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keuling, O., Stier, N., and Roth, M. (2008b). How does hunting influence activity and spatial usage in wild boar Sus scrofa L.? European Journal of Wildlife Research 54, 729–737.
How does hunting influence activity and spatial usage in wild boar Sus scrofa L.?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keuling, O., Stier, N., and Roth, M. (2009). Commuting, shifting or remaining? Different spatial utilisation patterns of wild boar Sus scrofa L. in forest and field crops during summer. Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 74, 145–152.
Commuting, shifting or remaining? Different spatial utilisation patterns of wild boar Sus scrofa L. in forest and field crops during summer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Killian, G., Miller, L., Rhyan, J., and Doten, H. (2006). Immunocontraception of Florida feral swine with a single‐dose GnRH vaccine. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 55, 378–384.
Immunocontraception of Florida feral swine with a single‐dose GnRH vaccine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xltlehtr4%3D&md5=96dc1957bf413139c6c203978f57dea2CAS | 16635212PubMed |

Killian, G., Wagner, D., Fagerstone, K., and Miller, L. (2008a). Long-term efficacy and reproductive behavior associated with GonaCon™ use in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). In ‘Proceedings of the 23rd Vertebrate Pest Conference’. (Eds R. Timm and M. Maldon.) pp. 240–243. (University of California: Davis, CA.)

Killian, G., Thain, D., Diehl, N.K., Rhyan, J., and Miller, L. (2008b). Four-year contraception rates of mares treated with single-injection porcine zona pellucida and GnRH vaccines and intrauterine devices. Wildlife Research 35, 531–539.
Four-year contraception rates of mares treated with single-injection porcine zona pellucida and GnRH vaccines and intrauterine devices.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht1KrtLjJ&md5=3d6115876f5da47fd33626bde8b97532CAS |

Massei, G., Coats, J., Quy, R., Storer, K., and Cowan, D. P. (2010). The boar‐operated‐system: a novel method to deliver baits to wild pigs. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 333–336.
The boar‐operated‐system: a novel method to deliver baits to wild pigs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Massei, G., Cowan, D. P., Coats, J., Bellamy, F., Quy, R., Pietravalle, S., Brash, M., and Miller, L. A. (2012). Long-term effects of immunocontraception on wild boar fertility, physiology and behaviour. Wildlife Research 39, 378–385.
Long-term effects of immunocontraception on wild boar fertility, physiology and behaviour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XpvFKluro%3D&md5=7a6e0b9ff0fbc646688d3b395ee86e63CAS |

Massei, G., Cowan, D.P., Coats, J., Gladwell, F., Lane, J.E., and Miller, L.A. (2008). Effect of the GnRH vaccine GonaCon on the fertility, physiology and behaviour of wild boar. Wildlife Research 35, 540–547.
Effect of the GnRH vaccine GonaCon on the fertility, physiology and behaviour of wild boar.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht1KrtLjP&md5=385f446f988e658008ec2bb3bc9bdf9cCAS |

Massei, G., Genov, P. V., Staines, B. W., and Gorman, M. L. (1997). Factors influencing home range and activity of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in a Mediterranean coastal area. Journal of Zoology 242, 411–423.
Factors influencing home range and activity of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in a Mediterranean coastal area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Massei, G., Roy, S., and Bunting, R. (2011). Too many hogs? A review of methods to mitigate impact by wild boar and feral pigs. Human-Wildlife Interactions 5, 79–99.

Mauget, R. (1982). Seasonality of reproduction in the wild boar. In ‘Control of pig reproduction’. (Eds D. Cole and G. Foxcroft.) pp. 509–526. (Butterworth: London.)

Mauget, R. (1984). Rythme d’activité et budget-temps chez le sanglier européen (Sus scrofa L.). In ‘Symposium International sur le Sanglier’, 1984, Toulouse (France). (Eds F. Spitz and D. Pépin.) pp. 79–92. (Les Colloques de l’INRA 22, Paris, France)

Miller, L. A., Johns, B. E., and Killian, G. J. (2000). Immunocontraception of white-tailed deer with GnRH vaccine. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 44, 266–274.
| 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M7lt1Gnug%3D%3D&md5=5aa1f69018434954dc564589cd030e65CAS | 11125787PubMed |

Miller, L., Rhyan, J., and Killian, G. (2003). Evaluation of GnRH contraceptive vaccine using domestic swine as a model for feral hogs. In ‘Proceedings of the 10th Wildlife Damage Management Conference’. (Eds K. A. Fagerstone and G. A. Witmer.) pp. 120–127. (University of Nebraska: Lincoln, NE)

Miller, L. A., Gionfriddo, J. P., Fagerstone, K. A., Rhyan, J. C., and Killian, G. J. (2008). The single-shot GnRH immunocontraceptive vaccine (GonaCon™) in white-tailed deer: comparison of several GnRH preparations. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 60, 214–223.
The single-shot GnRH immunocontraceptive vaccine (GonaCon™) in white-tailed deer: comparison of several GnRH preparations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtFKrsbzP&md5=19e6d7112adcfe8e7a7812e8184190a8CAS | 18782282PubMed |

Miller, L. A., Rhyan, J. C., and Drew, M. (2004). Contraception of bison by GnRH vaccine: a possible means of decreasing transmission of brucellosis in bison. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 40, 725–730.
Contraception of bison by GnRH vaccine: a possible means of decreasing transmission of brucellosis in bison.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhsV2ht74%3D&md5=5cac4a34acdac104a3c6b5212af1556cCAS | 15650090PubMed |

Murtaugh, P. A. (2007). Simplicity and complexity in ecological data analysis. Ecology 88, 56–62.
Simplicity and complexity in ecological data analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17489454PubMed |

Payne, R. W. (2009). Genstat. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics 1, 255–258.
Genstat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ramsey, D. (2007). Effects of fertility control on behavior and disease transmission in brushtail possums. The Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 109–116.
Effects of fertility control on behavior and disease transmission in brushtail possums.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Russo, L., Massei, G., and Genov, P. V. (1997). Daily home range and activity of wild boar in a Mediterranean area free from hunting. Ethology Ecology and Evolution 9, 287–294.
Daily home range and activity of wild boar in a Mediterranean area free from hunting.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Saunders, G., McIlroy, J., Berghout, M., Kay, B., Gifford, E., Perry, R., and Van de Ven, R. (2002). The effects of induced sterility on the territorial behaviour and survival of foxes. Journal of Applied Ecology 39, 56–66.
The effects of induced sterility on the territorial behaviour and survival of foxes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schwartz, C. C., Cain, S. L., Podruzny, S., Cherry, S., and Frattaroli, L. (2010). Contrasting activity patterns of sympatric and allopatric black and grizzly bears. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 1628–1638.
Contrasting activity patterns of sympatric and allopatric black and grizzly bears.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of Statistics 6, 461–464.
Estimating the dimension of a model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilson, C. J. (2003). Distribution and status of feral wild boar Sus scrofa in Dorset, southern England. Mammal Review 33, 302–307.
Distribution and status of feral wild boar Sus scrofa in Dorset, southern England.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilson, C. J. (2005). Feral wild boar in England; status, impact and management: a report on behalf of Defra European Wildlife Division. Defra, London, UK.

Woodward, R., Herberstein, M.E., and Herbert, C.A. (2006). Fertility control in female eastern grey kangaroos using the GnRH agonist deslorelin. 2. Effects on behaviour. Wildlife Research 33, 47–55.
Fertility control in female eastern grey kangaroos using the GnRH agonist deslorelin. 2. Effects on behaviour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XitVOhtrs%3D&md5=fbf3687c78c545f9fefb3b254696505fCAS |

Yalden, D. (2010). ‘The History of British Mammals.’ (Poyser Natural History: London, UK)