Register      Login
Wildlife Research Wildlife Research Society
Ecology, management and conservation in natural and modified habitats
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Assessment of non-target risks from sodium fluoroacetate (1080), para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP) and sodium cyanide (NaCN) for fox-incursion response in Tasmania

Stephen Mallick A , Matthew Pauza B H , Charles Eason C D , Nick Mooney E , Robbie Gaffney F and Stephen Harris B G
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Tas. 7005, Australia.

B Invasive Species Branch, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, GPO Box 44, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.

C Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Christchurch 7647, New Zealand.

D Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.

E Richmond, Tas. 7025, Australia.

F Wildlife Management Branch, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, GPO Box 44, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.

G School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia.

H Corresponding author. Email: Matthew.Pauza@dpipwe.tas.gov.au

Wildlife Research 43(2) 140-152 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR15040
Submitted: 20 February 2015  Accepted: 28 January 2016   Published: 6 May 2016

Abstract

Context: Access to effective toxicants and delivery systems that target red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are likely to be required as part of a management strategy in the event of future red fox incursions into Tasmania. Potential toxicants include sodium fluoroacetate (1080), para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP) and sodium cyanide (NaCN).

Aims: To assess the risk of three toxicants (1080, PAPP and NaCN) to non-target native Tasmanian mammals and birds and domestic dogs and cats.

Methods: We identified native Tasmanian mammal and bird species that may potentially consume fox baits, by reviewing the ecological traits of native species and by monitoring 180 buried bait stations with video cameras. We also assess the potential risk to non-target species of dying from a single standard dose of each of the three toxicants.

Key results: Seven native mammal and 20 native bird species have the potential to consume fox bait. All vertebrates would be susceptible to a single dose of NaCN. Consumption of a single fox bait containing 3 mg 1080 may be lethal to five native mammals, three native birds, and the domestic cat (Felis catus) and dog (Canis familiaris). Consumption of a single fox bait containing 226 mg PAPP may be lethal to the spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus maculatus) and the domestic cat and dog. Delivery of toxicants via a mechanical ejector would reduce non-target exposure to toxicants.

Conclusions: It appears that PAPP would provide a useful alternative to 1080 for use in lethal fox control in Tasmania, either in the event of an incursion or in the eradication of an established population. NaCN is not suitable for broadscale use in Tasmania because of the high susceptibility of all vertebrates to this toxicant. Nevertheless, NaCN would be useful in highly restricted areas in the event of an incursion where carcass recovery is important. The use of a mechanical ejector to target delivery of toxicants to red foxes would reduce non-target risks.

Implications: Our results clarify theoretical non-target risks from any future fox-poisoning programs in Tasmania and highlight the need for further research on the susceptibility of native species to PAPP as a potential alternative to 1080.

Additional keywords: Vulpes vulpes, poison baiting, toxicant, pest control, delivery mechanism, M-44 ejector, canid-pest ejectors, CPEs, Tasmania native fauna.


References

Abbott, I. (2011). The importation, release, establishment, spread and early impact on prey animals of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes, in Victoria and adjoining parts of south-eastern Australia. Australian Zoologist 35, 463–533.
The importation, release, establishment, spread and early impact on prey animals of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes, in Victoria and adjoining parts of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

ABS (2008). ‘Area of Major Islands, Tasmania.’ Available at http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/D1C2967E40D51C1DCA2573C5000D9EC3?opendocument [Accessed 28 August 2013].

ABS (2012). ‘Australian Demographic Statistics. 2011.’ Census edition-final. 3101.0. December quarter 2012. (Australian Bureau of Statistics: Sydney.)

Allen, L. R., Fleming, P. J. S., Thompson, J. A., and Strong, K. (1989). Effect of presentation on the attractiveness and palatability to wild dogs and other wildlife of two unpoisoned wild-dog bait types. Australian Wildlife Research 16, 593–598.
Effect of presentation on the attractiveness and palatability to wild dogs and other wildlife of two unpoisoned wild-dog bait types.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ballantyne, B. (1994). Acute percutaneous systemic toxicity of cyanides. Journal of Toxicology. Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology 13, 249–262.
Acute percutaneous systemic toxicity of cyanides.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXmslCjtb4%3D&md5=8a0360bf2e70b9e920e2ccc51709fb22CAS |

Baskin, S., and Fricke, R. F. (1992). The pharmacology of p-aminopropiophenone in the detoxification of cyanide. Cardiovascular Drug Reviews 10, 358–375.
| 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXhvVGitr8%3D&md5=6e113aa1267e1aa65bbbc17a9ee31653CAS |

Belcher, C. A. (1998). Susceptibility of the tiger quoll, Dasyurus maculatus, and the eastern quoll, D. viverrinus, to 1080-poisoned baits in control programmes for vertebrate pests in eastern Australia. Wildlife Research 25, 33–40.
Susceptibility of the tiger quoll, Dasyurus maculatus, and the eastern quoll, D. viverrinus, to 1080-poisoned baits in control programmes for vertebrate pests in eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Blackie, H. M., MacKay, J. W. B., Allen, W. J., Smith, D. H. V., Barrett, B., Whyte, B. I., Murphy, E. C., Ross, J., Shapiro, L., Ogilvie, S., Sam, S., MacMorran, D., Inder, S., and Eason, C. T. (2014). Innovative developments for long-term mammalian pest control. Pest Management Science 70, 345–351.
Innovative developments for long-term mammalian pest control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhsFOgtbzL&md5=992084e9bcf693cbaafd337765194d63CAS | 23943626PubMed |

Buckmaster, T., Dickman, C.R., and Johnston, M.J. (2014). Assessing risks to non-target species during poison baiting programs for feral cats. PLoS One 9, e107788.
Assessing risks to non-target species during poison baiting programs for feral cats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25229348PubMed |

Busana, F., Gigliotti, F., and Marks, C. A. (1998). Modified M-44 cyanide ejector for the baiting of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Wildlife Research 25, 209–215.
Modified M-44 cyanide ejector for the baiting of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Caley, P., Ramsey, D. S. L., and Barry, S. C. (2015). Inferring the distribution and demography of an invasive species from sighting data: the red fox incursion into Tasmania. PLoS One 10, e0116631.
Inferring the distribution and demography of an invasive species from sighting data: the red fox incursion into Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25602618PubMed |

Coleman, J. D., Montague, T. L., Eason, C. T., and Statham, H. L. (1997). ‘The Management of Problem Browsing and Grazing Animals in Tasmania.’ 2nd edn. (Department of Primary Industry, Water and Environment: Launceston, Tas.)

Coutts-Smith, A. J., Mahon, P. S., Letnic, M., and Downey, P. O. (2007). ‘The Threat Posed by Pest Animals to Biodiversity in New South Wales.’ (Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre: Canberra.)

Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment (DPIPWE) (2001). ‘Fox-free Tasmania: Action Plan to Prevent the European Red Fox Entry into Tasmania 2001–2003.’ (Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment: Hobart.)

Dexter, N., and Meek, P. (1998). An analysis of bait-take and non-target impacts during a fox-control exercise. Wildlife Research 25, 147–155.
An analysis of bait-take and non-target impacts during a fox-control exercise.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dickman, C. (2008). Indirect interactions and conservation in human-modified environments. Animal Conservation: the Rapid Publication Journal for Quantitative Studies in Conservation 11, 11–12.

Donato, D. B., Nichols, O., Possingham, H., Moore, M., Ricci, I. P. F., and Noller, B. N. (2007). A critical review of the effects of gold cyanide-bearing tailings solutions on wildlife. Environment International 33, 974–984.
A critical review of the effects of gold cyanide-bearing tailings solutions on wildlife.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXps1Wrsr8%3D&md5=21da1ba123978cf7a5a7ab5967862085CAS | 17540445PubMed |

Driessen, M. M., Hocking, G. J., and Beukers, P. (1990). Habitat, conservation status and management of the Tasmanian bettong Bettongia gaimardi. A report funded by the Australian Parks and Wildlife Service under the State’s Cooperative Assistance Program. Tasmanian Department of Parks, Wildlife and Heritage, Hobart.

Dundas, S. J., Adams, P. J., and Fleming, P. A. (2014). First in, first served: uptake of 1080 poison fox baits in south-west Western Australia. Wildlife Research , .
First in, first served: uptake of 1080 poison fox baits in south-west Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Eason, C. T., Shapiro, L., Adams, P., Hix, S., Cunningham, C., MacMorran, D., Statham, M., and Statham, S. (2010a). Advancing a humane alternative to sodium fluoroacetate (1080) for wildlife management. Wildlife Research 37, 497–503.
Advancing a humane alternative to sodium fluoroacetate (1080) for wildlife management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVCht73F&md5=a02b4942078ee33b45942b99dee5c304CAS |

Eason, C. T., Murphy, E. C., Hix, S., and MacMorran, D. B. (2010b). Development of a new humane toxin for predator control in New Zealand. Integrative Zoology 5, 31–36.
Development of a new humane toxin for predator control in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21392319PubMed |

Eason, C. T., Fagerstone, K. A., Eisemann, J. D., Humphrys, S., O’Hare, J. R., and Lapidge, S. J. (2010c). A review of existing and potential New World and Australasian vertebrate pesticides with a rationale for linking use patterns to registration requirement. International Journal of Pest Management 56, 109–125.
A review of existing and potential New World and Australasian vertebrate pesticides with a rationale for linking use patterns to registration requirement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Eason, C. T., Henderson, R., Murphy, E., Shapiro, L., MacMorran, D., Blackie, H., Brimble, M., Conole, D., Rennison, D., Gibson, T. J., and Gregory, N. G. (2011). Retrieving and retaining older and advancing novel rodenticides-as alternatives to anticoagulants. In ‘Book of Abstracts 8th European Vertebrate Pest Management Conference’. (Eds J. Jacob and A. Esther.) pp. 19–20. (Julius Kühn Institute, Humboldt University: Berlin.)

Eason, C. T., Ross, J., and Miller, A. (2013a). Secondary poisoning risks from 1080 poisoned carcasses and risk of trophic transfer: a review. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 40, 217–225.
Secondary poisoning risks from 1080 poisoned carcasses and risk of trophic transfer: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Eason, C. T., Fairweather, A., Ogilvie, S., Blackie, H., and Miller, A. (2013b). A review of recent non-target toxicity testing of vertebrate pesticides: establishing generic guidelines. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 40, 226–235.
A review of recent non-target toxicity testing of vertebrate pesticides: establishing generic guidelines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Eason, C. T., Miller, A., Duncan, M., and Murphy, E. A. (2014). Toxicology and ecotoxicology of PAPP for pest control in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 38, 177–188.

Eisler, R., and Wiemeyer, S. N. (2004). Cyanide hazards to plants and animals from gold mining and related water issues. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 183, 21–54.
Cyanide hazards to plants and animals from gold mining and related water issues.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmsl2gt7Y%3D&md5=6d59c5b032f0d6c3e0497faf1a690a33CAS | 15369321PubMed |

Fairbridge, D., Fisher, P., Busana, F., Kontin, K., Edwards, A., Johnston, M., and Shaw, M. (2000). Observations of the behaviour of free living bush rat, Rattus fuscipes and southern brown bandicoot, Isoodon obesulus at buried bait stations. Australian Mammalogy 22, 125–127.

Fairbridge, D., Anderson, R., Wilkes, T., and Pell, G. (2003). Bait uptake by free living brush-tailed phascogales Phascogale tapoatafa and other non-target mammals during simulated buried fox baiting. Australian Mammalogy 25, 31–40.

Fisher, P., and O’Connor, C. (2007). Oral toxicity of p-aminopropiophenone to ferrets. Wildlife Research 34, 19–24.
Oral toxicity of p-aminopropiophenone to ferrets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXit1artrY%3D&md5=f6c40180dffaf504e5e408be7ce95e64CAS |

Gentle, M. N., Saunders, R. G., and Dickman, C. R. (2007). Persistence of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in fox baits and implications for fox management in south-eastern Australia. Wildlife Research 34, 325–333.
Persistence of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in fox baits and implications for fox management in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXnsV2gsrc%3D&md5=539f7130ddf0793ca0976dca11d4c740CAS |

Glen, A. G., and Dickman, C. R. (2003). Effect of bait-station design on bait-uptake by non-target animals during control programmes for foxes and wild dogs. Wildlife Research 30, 147–149.
Effect of bait-station design on bait-uptake by non-target animals during control programmes for foxes and wild dogs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Glen, A. S., Gentle, M. N., and Dickman, C. R. (2007). Non-target impacts of poison baiting for predator control in Australia. Mammal Review 37, 191–205.
Non-target impacts of poison baiting for predator control in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gregory, N. G., Milne, L. M., Rhodes, A. T., Littin, K. E., Wickstrom, M., and Eason, C. T. (1998). Effect of potassium cyanide on behaviour and time to death in possums. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 46, 60–64.
Effect of potassium cyanide on behaviour and time to death in possums.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjslemt7c%3D&md5=9e4bae1e22fe60a1adf8839db7fb9633CAS | 16032017PubMed |

Harris, S., and Kitchener, A. (2005). ‘From Forest to Fjaeldmark. Descriptions of Tasmania’s Vegetation.’ (Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Printing Authority of Tasmania: Hobart.)

Hughes, C., Gaffney, R., and Dickman, C. R. (2011). A preliminary study assessing risk to Tasmanian devils from poisoning for red foxes. Journal of Wildlife Management 75, 385–392.

Jessop, T. S., Kearney, M. R., Moore, J. L., Lockwood, T., and Johnston, M. (2013). Evaluating and predicting risk to a large reptile (Varanus varius) from feral cat baiting protocols. Biological Invasions 15, 1653–1663.
Evaluating and predicting risk to a large reptile (Varanus varius) from feral cat baiting protocols.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Langford, J. (1965). Weather and climate. In ‘Atlas of Tasmania’. (Ed. J.L. Davies.) pp. 2–11. (Lands and Survey Department: Hobart.)

Littin, K. E., Gregory, N. G., Airey, A. T., Eason, C. T., and Mellor, D. J. (2009). Behaviour and time to unconsciousness of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) after a lethal or sublethal dose of 1080. Wildlife Research 36, 709–720.
Behaviour and time to unconsciousness of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) after a lethal or sublethal dose of 1080.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mahon, P. S. (2009). Targeted control of widespread exotic species for biodiversity conservation: the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in New South Wales, Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration 10, S59–69.
Targeted control of widespread exotic species for biodiversity conservation: the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C. A., and Gigliotti, F. (1996). Cyanide baiting manual. Practices and guidelines for the destruction of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Fauna Protection Project Report Series. No 1. p. 64. Department of Natural Resources, Melbourne.

Marks, C. A., and Wilson, R. (2005). Predicting mammalian target specificity of the M-44 ejector in south-eastern Australia. Wildlife Research 32, 151–156.
Predicting mammalian target specificity of the M-44 ejector in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C. A., Busana, F., and Gigliotti, F. (1999). Assessment of the M-44 ejector for the delivery of 1080 for red fox (Vulpes vulpes) control. Wildlife Research 26, 101–109.
Assessment of the M-44 ejector for the delivery of 1080 for red fox (Vulpes vulpes) control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C. A., Gigliotti, F., and Busana, F. (2002). Estimated 1080 dose rates for the M-44 ejector for the control of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Wildlife Research 29, 291–294.
Estimated 1080 dose rates for the M-44 ejector for the control of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C. A., Gigliotti, F., Busana, F., Johnson, M., and Lindeman, M. (2004). Fox control using, para-aminopropriophenone formulation with the M-44 ejector. Animal Welfare (South Mimms, England) 13, 401–407.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXpvVChu7c%3D&md5=8495dcaade2b8cbeaf9bd6735a0e7bddCAS |

McIlroy, J. C. (1981). The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. II. Marsupial and eutherian carnivores. Australian Wildlife Research 8, 385–399.
The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. II. Marsupial and eutherian carnivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XotFShtg%3D%3D&md5=c268d2d4aee8396f668b60d2b7d27b96CAS |

McIlroy, J. C. (1982). The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. III. Marsupial and eutherian herbivores. Australian Wildlife Research 9, 487–503.
The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. III. Marsupial and eutherian herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL3sXhtValtL8%3D&md5=86acea9330981b1a04ad859367bb92c2CAS |

McIlroy, J. C. (1984). The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. VII. Native and introduced birds. Australian Wildlife Research 11, 373–385.
The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison. VII. Native and introduced birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McIlroy, J. C. (1986). The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison IX. Comparisons between the major groups of animals, and the potential danger non-target species face from 1080-poisoning campaigns. Australian Wildlife Research 13, 39–48.
The sensitivity of Australian animals to 1080 poison IX. Comparisons between the major groups of animals, and the potential danger non-target species face from 1080-poisoning campaigns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McIlroy, J. C. (1993). Susceptibility of target and non-target animals to 1080. In ‘Proceedings of the Science Workshop on 1080’. (Eds A. A. Wright and C. T. Eason.) pp. 90–96. (The Royal Society of New Zealand: Wellington, New Zealand.)

McLeod, L., and Saunders, G. (2013). ‘Pesticides Used in the Management of Vertebrate Pests in Australia: a Review.’ (NSW Department of Primary Industries: Orange, NSW.)

Meenken, D., and Booth, L. H. (1997). The risk to dogs of poisoning from sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) residues in possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 40, 573–576.
The risk to dogs of poisoning from sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) residues in possum (Trichosurus vulpecula).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mooney, N. J., Emms, C., and Bloomfield, T. E. (2005). Minimising the effects of 1080 fox baiting on non-target species and vice versa while maximising the risk to foxes in Tasmania. In ‘Proceedings of the 13th Australian Vertebrate Pest Conference’. (Eds J. Parkes, M. Statham and G. Edwards.) pp. 148–149. (Manaaki Whenua, Landcare Research: Wellington, New Zealand.)

Ramsey, D. S. L., MacDonald, A. J., Quasim, S., Barclay, C., Stephen, D., and Sarre, S. D. (2015). An examination of the accuracy of a sequential PCR and sequencing test used to detect the incursion of an invasive species: the case of the red fox in Tasmania. Journal of Applied Ecology 52, 562–570.
An examination of the accuracy of a sequential PCR and sequencing test used to detect the incursion of an invasive species: the case of the red fox in Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXovF2qtrs%3D&md5=081fcf11e66ce4137bb5774c8715d5c6CAS |

Sarre, S. D., MacDonald, A. J., Barclay, C., Saunders, G. R., and Ramsey, D. S. L. (2013). Foxes are now widespread in Tasmania: DNA detection defines the distribution of this rare but invasive carnivore. Journal of Applied Ecology 50, 459–468.
Foxes are now widespread in Tasmania: DNA detection defines the distribution of this rare but invasive carnivore.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Saunders, G., Coman, B., Kinnear, J., and Braysher, M. (1995). ‘Managing Vertebrate Pests: Foxes.’ (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra.)

Saunders, G., Lane, C., Harris, S., and Dickman, C. (2006). Foxes in Tasmania: a report on the incursion of an invasive species. Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra.

Saunders, G. R., Gentle, M. N., and Dickman, C. R. (2010). The impacts and management of foxes Vulpes in Australia. Mammal Review 40, 181–211.
The impacts and management of foxes Vulpes in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Shapiro, L., Ross, J., Adams, P., Keyzer, R., Hix, S., MacMorran, D., Cunningham, C., and Eason, C. T. (2011). Effectiveness of cyanide pellets for control of dama wallabies (Macropus eugenii). New Zealand Journal of Ecology 35, 287–290.

Sherley, M. (2004). The traditional categories of fluoroacetate poisoning signs and symptoms belie substantial underlying similarities. Toxicology Letters 151, 399–406.
The traditional categories of fluoroacetate poisoning signs and symptoms belie substantial underlying similarities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXlslyitLw%3D&md5=e3394257fed85d1628fa95196c6e3912CAS | 15261984PubMed |

Sherley, M. (2007). Is sodium fluoroacetate (1080) a humane poison? Animal Welfare (South Mimms, England) 16, 449–458.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtlSlu7fJ&md5=056c976f5ff067d67ab66603bf832749CAS |

Smith, S. J. (1990). ‘Checklist of Vertebrate Animals of Tasmania.’ (St Davids Park Publishing: Hobart.)

Southwell, D., Boero, V., Mewett, O., McCowen, S., and Hennecke, B. (2013). Understanding the drivers and barriers to participation in wild canid management in Australia: implications for the adoption of a new toxin, para-aminopropiophenone. International Journal of Pest Management 59, 35–46.
Understanding the drivers and barriers to participation in wild canid management in Australia: implications for the adoption of a new toxin, para-aminopropiophenone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXit1Kktrs%3D&md5=a8f128d9e869d236e947b874d2700e89CAS |

Strahan, R. (1995). ‘The Mammals of Australia.’ (Reed Books: Sydney.)

Twigg, L. E. (1993). Occurrence of fluoroacetate in Australian plants and tolerance to 1080 in Indigenous Australian animals. In ‘Proceedings of the Science Workshop on 1080’. (Eds A. A. Seawright and C. T. Eason.) pp. 97–115. Miscellaneous Series. 28. (The Royal Society of New Zealand: Wellington.)

Twigg, L. E., and Parker, R. W. (2010). Is sodium fluoroacetate (1080) a humane poison? The influence of mode of action, physiological effects, and target specificity. Animal Welfare (South Mimms, England) 19, 249–263.
| 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVClurjK&md5=9193886fc61f702340eaeb3c6547ef36CAS |

Twigg, L. E., Martin, G. R., and Lowe, T. J. (2002). Evidence of pesticide resistance in medium-sized mammalian pests: a case study with 1080 poison and Australian rabbits. Journal of Applied Ecology 39, 549–560.
Evidence of pesticide resistance in medium-sized mammalian pests: a case study with 1080 poison and Australian rabbits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XntVCis74%3D&md5=672033ccee2298f46646d9ea0aea089fCAS |