Register      Login
The Rangeland Journal The Rangeland Journal Society
Journal of the Australian Rangeland Society
REVIEW

Impacts on ecosystems, corrective restoration practices, and prospects for recovery: nine case studies in the continental United States

T. A. Jones
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

Forage and Range Research Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-6300, USA. Email: thomas.jones@ars.usda.gov

The Rangeland Journal 39(6) 431-450 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ17021
Submitted: 31 March 2017  Accepted: 30 August 2017   Published: 6 October 2017

Abstract

Ecological restoration in the United States is growing in terms of the number, size, and diversity of projects. Such efforts are intended to ameliorate past environmental damage and to restore functioning ecosystems that deliver desired levels of ecosystem services. In nine current restoration case studies from across the continental United States, this paper details (1) the impacts of the original disturbance and compounding secondary issues that compel restoration, (2) the corrective practices applied to advance restoration goals, and (3) the prospects for recovery of ecosystem services, including those involving associated animal populations. Ecosystem-altering impacts include flood control (Kissimmee River), flood control and navigation (Atchafalaya Basin), damming for irrigation-water storage (Colorado River) and hydroelectric power (Elwha River), logging and fire suppression (longleaf pine forest), plant invasions that decrease fire-return intervals (Great Basin shrublands, Mojave Desert), nutrient and sediment loading of watersheds (Chesapeake Bay, Mississippi River delta), and conversion of natural lands to agriculture (tallgrass prairie). Animal species targeted for recovery include the greater sage-grouse (Great Basin shrublands), the red-cockaded woodpecker (longleaf pine forest), the south-western willow flycatcher (Colorado River and its tributaries), the desert tortoise (Mojave Desert), eight salmonid fish (Elwha River), and the blue crab and eastern oyster (Chesapeake Bay).

Additional keywords: arid rangelands, exotic species, fire ecology, grassland ecosystems, open forest, riparian ecology.


References

2011 Mississippi River floods (2017). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Mississippi_River_floods (accessed 10 March 2017).

Abella, S. R. (2017). Persistent establishment of outplanted seedlings in the Mojave Desert. Ecological Research 35, 16–18.
Persistent establishment of outplanted seedlings in the Mojave Desert.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Abella, S. R., Craig, D. J., Smith, S. D., and Newton, A. C. (2012). Identifying native vegetation for reducing exotic species during the restoration of desert ecosystems. Restoration Ecology 20, 781–787.
Identifying native vegetation for reducing exotic species during the restoration of desert ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Arnason, R. (2017). Interest surges in cover crops. The Western Producer (12 January 2017). Available at: www.producer.com/2017/01/interest-surges-in-cover-crops/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Asbjornsen, H., Hernandez-Santana, V., Liebman, M., Bayala, J., Chen, J., Helmers, M., Ong, C. K., and Schulte, L. A. (2014). Targeting perennial vegetation in agricultural landscapes for enhancing ecosystem services. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 29, 101–125.
Targeting perennial vegetation in agricultural landscapes for enhancing ecosystem services.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Atchafalaya River (2017). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atchafalaya_River (accessed 10 March 2017).

Bateman, H. L., Dudley, T. L., Bean, D. W., Ostoja, S. M., Hultine, K. R., and Kuehn, M. J. (2010). A river system to watch: documenting the effects of saltcedar (Tamarix spp.) biocontrol in the Virgin River Valley. Ecological Research 28, 405–410.
A river system to watch: documenting the effects of saltcedar (Tamarix spp.) biocontrol in the Virgin River Valley.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bjorhus, J. (2017). Dayton signs $500 million deal to protect rural waters. StarTribune (18 January 2017). Available at: www.startribune.com/dayton-announces-500-million-deal-to-protect-rural-waters/410986245/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Brooks, M. L. (2000). Competition between alien annual grasses and native annual plants in the Mojave Desert. American Midland Naturalist 144, 92–108.
Competition between alien annual grasses and native annual plants in the Mojave Desert.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brooks, M. L., and Matchett, J. R. (2006). Spatial and temporal patterns of wildfires in the Mojave Desert, 1980–2004. Journal of Arid Environments 67, 148–164.
Spatial and temporal patterns of wildfires in the Mojave Desert, 1980–2004.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bugaboo Scrub Fire (2017). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugaboo_Scrub_Fire (accessed 9 August 2017).

Bureau of Land Management (2004). National sage-grouse habitat conservation strategy. 1.4.1 Guidance for the management of sagebrush plant communities for sage-grouse conservation. Available at: www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/fish__wildlife_and.Par.11218.File.dat/Sage-Grouse_Strategy_1_4_1.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Bureau of Land Management (2016). Soda Fire – emergency stabilization and rehabilitation, Idaho and Oregon. Available at: www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/id/fire/soda_fire.Par.28558.File.dat/SodaFireESR_StatusReport_2016–0615.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Cane, J. H., and Love, B. (2016). Floral guilds of bees in sagebrush steppe: comparing bee usage of wildflowers available for postfire restoration. Natural Areas Journal 36, 377–391.
Floral guilds of bees in sagebrush steppe: comparing bee usage of wildflowers available for postfire restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Carrico, J. (2017). Cover crops turn up cow condition. High Plains/Midwest Ag Journal (9 January 2017). Available at: www.hpj.com/carrico/cover-crops-turn-up-cow-condition/article_a2cb75b6-d35e-11e6-bb99–7fc2f96cffbd.html (accessed 10 March 2017).

Chambers, R. M., Meyerson, L. A., and Saltonstall, K. (1999). Expansion of Phragmites australis into tidal wetlands of North America. Aquatic Botany 64, 261–273.
Expansion of Phragmites australis into tidal wetlands of North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chambers, J. C., Bradley, B. A., Brown, C. S., D’Antonio, C., Germino, M. G., Grace, J. B., Hardegree, S. P., Miller, R. F., and Pyke, D. A. (2014a). Resilience to stress and disturbance, and resistance to Bromus tectorum L. invasion in cold desert shrublands of western North America. Ecosystems 17, 360–375.
Resilience to stress and disturbance, and resistance to Bromus tectorum L. invasion in cold desert shrublands of western North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXjslWntrc%3D&md5=4aecd9cfa51ed53b57a9ccb4a1755014CAS |

Chambers, J. C., Miller, R. F., Board, D. I., Pyke, D. A., Roundy, B. A., Grace, J. B., Schupp, E. W., and Tausch, R. J. (2014b). Resilience and resistance of sagebrush ecosystems: implications for state and transition models and management treatments. Rangeland Ecology and Management 67, 440–454.
Resilience and resistance of sagebrush ecosystems: implications for state and transition models and management treatments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chesapeake Bay (2017). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay (accessed 10 March 2017).

Chesapeake Bay Program (2016). Chesapeake Bay water quality improving – data show drop in nutrient and sediment pollution, the leading cause of the Bay’s poor health. Media release (21 September 2016). Available at: www.chesapeakebay.net/presscenter/release/chesapeake_bay_water_quality_improving (accessed 10 March 2017).

Conca, J. (2014). It’s final – corn ethanol is of no use. Forbes (20 April 2014). Available at: www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2014/04/20/its-final-corn-ethanol-is-of-no-use/#22d90e0c2ca2 (accessed 10 March 2017).

Cox, J. (2017). Chesapeake Bay takes a leap in health, report shows. Available at: www.delmarvanow.com/story/news/2017/01/05/chesapeake-bay-2017-health/96199160/ (accessed 1 August 2017).

Culman, S. W., Snapp, S. S., Ollenburger, M., Basso, B., and DeHaan, L. R. (2013). Soil and water quality rapidly responds to the perennial grain kernza wheatgrass. Agronomy Journal 105, 735–744.
Soil and water quality rapidly responds to the perennial grain kernza wheatgrass.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cutlip, K. (2016). Smithsonian expert urges caution, patience on blue crab recovery. Smithsonian Insider (April 2016). Available at: http://insider.si.edu/2016/04/smithsonian-expert-urges-caution-patience-on-blue-crab-recovery (accessed 10 March 2017).

Dahm, C. N., Cummins, K. W., Valett, H. M., and Coleman, R. L. (1995). An ecosystem view of the restoration of the Kissimmee River. Restoration Ecology 3, 225–238.
An ecosystem view of the restoration of the Kissimmee River.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davies, K. W., Boyd, C. S., Beck, J. L., Bates, J. D., Svejcar, T. J., and Gregg, M. A. (2011). Saving the sagebrush sea: an ecosystem conservation plan for big sagebrush plant communities. Biological Conservation 144, 2573–2584.
Saving the sagebrush sea: an ecosystem conservation plan for big sagebrush plant communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Day, J. W., Boesch, D. F., Clairain, E. J., Kemp, G. P., Laska, S. B., Mitsch, W. J., Orth, K., Mashriqui, H., Reed, D. J., Shabman, L., et al. (2007). Restoration of the Mississippi Delta: lessons from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Science 315, 1679–1684.
Restoration of the Mississippi Delta: lessons from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjtlWnurc%3D&md5=d933dff159f8a92b26c60575361c40deCAS |

Devitt, E. (2017). Restoring seagrass under siege. Mongabay (2 January 2017). Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/01/restoring-seagrass-under-siege/ (accessed 10 August 2017).

Donner, S. D., and Kucharik, C. J. (2008). Corn-based ethanol production compromises goal of reducing nitrogen export by the Mississippi River. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105, 4513–4518.
Corn-based ethanol production compromises goal of reducing nitrogen export by the Mississippi River.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXkt1eiu7c%3D&md5=63ef9a6fe28e374d6f46a58a0e2407dfCAS |

Duda, J. J., Freilich, J. E., and Schreiner, E. G. (2008). Baseline studies in the Elwha River ecosystem prior to dam removal: introduction to the special issue. Northwest Science 82, 1–12.
Baseline studies in the Elwha River ecosystem prior to dam removal: introduction to the special issue.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Duda, J. J., Warrick, J. A., and Magirl, C. S. (2011). Elwha River Dam removal – rebirth of a river. USGS Fact Sheet 2011—3097. Available at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2011/3097/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Dudley, T. L., and Bean, D. W. (2012). Tamarisk biocontrol, endangered species risk and resolution of conflict through riparian restoration. BioControl 57, 331–347.
Tamarisk biocontrol, endangered species risk and resolution of conflict through riparian restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dumroese, R. K., Luna, T., Richardson, B. A., Kilkenny, F. F., and Runyon, J. B. (2015). Conserving and restoring habitat for greater sage-grouse and other sagebrush-obligate wildlife: the crucial link of forbs and sagebrush diversity. Native Plants Journal 16, 276–299.
Conserving and restoring habitat for greater sage-grouse and other sagebrush-obligate wildlife: the crucial link of forbs and sagebrush diversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dumroese, R. K., Luna, T., Pinto, J. R., and Landis, T. D. (2016). Forbs: foundation for restoration of monarch butterflies, other pollinators, and greater sage-grouse in the western United States. Natural Areas Journal 36, 499–511.
Forbs: foundation for restoration of monarch butterflies, other pollinators, and greater sage-grouse in the western United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Eastern oyster (2017). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_oyster (accessed 10 March 2017).

Elliott, B. (2015). Fish tale: recovering fisheries and restoring abundance. Oceana (13 March 2015). Available at: http://oceana.org/blog/fish-tale-recovering-fisheries-and-restoring-abundance (accessed 10 March 2017).

Elwha Dam (2016). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwha_Dam (accessed 10 March 2017).

Esque, T. C., Schwalbe, C. R., Defalco, L. A., Duncan, R. B., and Hughes, T. J. (2003). Effects of desert wildfires on desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) and other small vertebrates. The Southwestern Naturalist 48, 103–111.
Effects of desert wildfires on desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) and other small vertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fears, D. (2015). Scientists say Maryland’s gigantic new oyster reef is a pearl that could save the Chesapeake Bay. Washington Post (23 September 2015). Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/09/23/scientists-say-marylands-gigantic-new-oyster-reef-is-a-pearl-that-could-save-the-chesapeake-bay/?utm_term=.7125c00f164a (accessed 10 March 2017).

Foley, M. M., Warrick, J. A., Ritchie, A., Stevens, A. W., Shafroth, P. B., Duda, J. J., Beirne, M. M., Paradis, R., Gelfenbaum, G., McCoy, R., and Cubley, E. S. (2017). Coastal habitat and biological community response to dam removal on the Elwha River. Ecological Monographs , .
Coastal habitat and biological community response to dam removal on the Elwha River.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gaskill, M. (2008). Restoring Louisiana’s broken ecosystems – a special NWF program helped restore Gulf Coast marshes and woodlands damaged by the 2005 hurricanes. Available at: www.nwf.org/news-and-magazines/national-wildlife/animals/archives/2008/restoring-louisianas-broken-ecosystems.aspx (accessed 10 March 2017).

Gaul, A. (2017). Williston Herald (4 August 2017). Farm ‘bioreactor’ will filter nitrate from water. Available at: www.willistonherald.com/national/agriculture/farm-bioreactor-will-filter-nitrate-from-water/article_ca817eee-04ad-5c23-a74a-73b9ad798e40.html (accessed 10 August 2017).

Gelfand, I., Zenone, T., Jasrotia, P., Chen, J., Hamilton, S. K., and Robertson, G. P. (2011). Carbon debt of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands converted to bioenergy production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, 13864–13869.
Carbon debt of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands converted to bioenergy production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtV2msL7I&md5=3999f23d331a4b644d4b20e3d214cd5eCAS |

Glass, A. D. M. (2003). Nitrogen use efficiency of crop plants: physiological constraints upon nitrogen absorption. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 22, 453–470.
Nitrogen use efficiency of crop plants: physiological constraints upon nitrogen absorption.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXptVCntr8%3D&md5=33d8111a4bb1efa9cba94ff021e5e25eCAS |

Glover, J. D., Culman, S. W., DuPont, S. T., Broussard, W., Young, L., Mangan, M. E., Mai, J. G., Crews, T. E., DeHaan, L. R., Buckley, D. H., et al. (2010a). Harvested perennial grasslands provide ecological benchmarks for agricultural sustainability. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 137, 3–12.
Harvested perennial grasslands provide ecological benchmarks for agricultural sustainability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Glover, J. D., Reganold, J. P., Bell, L. W., Borevitz, J., Brummer, E. C., Buckler, E. S., Cox, C. M., Cox, T. S., Crews, T. E., Culman, S. W., et al. (2010b). Increased food and ecosystem security via perennial grains. Science 328, 1638–1639.
Increased food and ecosystem security via perennial grains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXot1Oqsbw%3D&md5=86593787b1fee65aef8fe3cc8f7724c7CAS |

Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 (2017). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Great_Mississippi_Flood_of_1927 (accessed 10 March 2017).

Harmon-Threatt, A. N., and Hendrix, S. D. (2015). Prairie restorations and bees: the potential ability of seed mixes to foster native bee communities. Basic and Applied Ecology 16, 64–72.
Prairie restorations and bees: the potential ability of seed mixes to foster native bee communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hughes, C. S. (2015). How we created a monster in the American Southwest. Smithsonian.com (9 October 2015). Available at: www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-we-created-monster-american-southwest-180956878/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

IPNI (International Plant Nutrition Institute) (2017). Nutrient source specifics no. 26: nitrification inhibitors. Available at: www.ipni.net/publication/nss.nsf/0/21B8084A341C98E085257E3C0077595B/$FILE/NSS26%20Nitrification%20Inhibitors.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Jenkinson, D. S., Potts, J. M., Perry, J. N., Barnett, V., Coleman, K., and Johnston, A. E. (1994). Trends in herbage yields over the last century on the Rothamsted long-term continuous hay experiment. The Journal of Agricultural Science 122, 365–374.
Trends in herbage yields over the last century on the Rothamsted long-term continuous hay experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jenkinson, D. S., Poulton, P. R., Johnston, A. E., and Powlson, D. S. (2004). Turnover of nitrogen-15-labeled fertilizer in old grasslands. Soil Science Society of America Journal 68, 865–875.
Turnover of nitrogen-15-labeled fertilizer in old grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXktV2gtbc%3D&md5=6d6a466cec25b5d12c465dff3ccb8a48CAS |

Jones, T. A., Monaco, T. A., and Rigby, C. W. (2015). The potential of novel native plant materials for the restoration of novel ecosystems. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 3, 000047.

Kant, S., Bi, Y.-M., and Rothstein, S. J. (2011). Understanding plant response to nitrogen limitation for the improvement of crop nitrogen use efficiency. Journal of Experimental Botany 62, 1499–1509.
Understanding plant response to nitrogen limitation for the improvement of crop nitrogen use efficiency.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhs1Gjsbs%3D&md5=c2429b10f75576a9753af7cadd652401CAS |

Karrfalt, R. P., and Shaw, N. (2013). Banking Wyoming big sagebrush seeds. Native Plants Journal 14, 60–70.
Banking Wyoming big sagebrush seeds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kettenring, K. M., McCormick, M. K., Baron, H. M., and Whigham, D. F. (2010). Phragmites australis (common reed) invasion in the Rhode River sub-estuary of the Chesapeake Bay: disentangling the effects of foliar nutrients, genetic diversity, patch size, and seed viability. Estuaries and Coasts 33, 118–126.
Phragmites australis (common reed) invasion in the Rhode River sub-estuary of the Chesapeake Bay: disentangling the effects of foliar nutrients, genetic diversity, patch size, and seed viability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXotVKqtA%3D%3D&md5=a0be36fa447e533a55ea27f80738ce9eCAS |

Kilkenny, F., and Edwards, F. (2016). The Great Basin Plant Project. Available at: www.greatbasinnpp.org/ (accessed 2 August 2017).

Koebel, J. W. (1995). An historical perspective on the Kissimmee River project. Restoration Ecology 3, 149–159.
An historical perspective on the Kissimmee River project.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Koebel, J. W., and Bousquin, S. G. (2014). The Kissimmee River restoration project and evaluation program, Florida, USA. Restoration Ecology 22, 345–352.
The Kissimmee River restoration project and evaluation program, Florida, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kozak, J. P., Bennett, M. G., Piazza, B. P., and Remo, J. W. F. (2016). Towards dynamic flow regime management for floodplain restoration in the Atchafalaya River Basin, Louisiana. Environmental Science & Policy 64, 118–128.
Towards dynamic flow regime management for floodplain restoration in the Atchafalaya River Basin, Louisiana.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kush, J., and Varner, J. M. (2009). Restoring fire to the longleaf pine forest. Fire Science Brief (issue 30). Available at: www.firescience.gov/projects/briefs/01B-3-1-01_FSBrief30.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Lamberton, M. L. (2012). The thirsty tree: confronting invasive salt cedar in the American Southwest. Terrain.org. Available at: www.terrain.org/articles/27/lamberton.htm (accessed 10 March 2017).

Leibowitz, H. (2017). Why this latest EPA move is ‘a slap in the face.’ www.cnbc.com/2017/07/06/repealing-clean-water-rule-is-a-terrible-mistake-commentary.html (accessed 31 July 2017).

Lovich, J. E., and Bainbridge, D. (1999). Anthropogenic degradation of the southern California desert ecosystem and prospects for natural recovery and restoration. Environmental Management 24, 309–326.
Anthropogenic degradation of the southern California desert ecosystem and prospects for natural recovery and restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2sbgvVyktQ%3D%3D&md5=a4032ff68637d9218f77cdcbfbdcb803CAS |

Lubofsky, E. (2016). The promise of perennials – working through the challenges of perennial grain crop development. CSA News (November 2016, 4–7). Available at: https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/csa/articles/61/11/4 (accessed 3 August 2017).

Marion, S. R., and Orth, R. J. (2010). Innovative techniques for large-scale seagrass restoration using Zostera marina (eelgrass) seeds. Restoration Ecology 18, 514–526.
Innovative techniques for large-scale seagrass restoration using Zostera marina (eelgrass) seeds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marshall, B. (2015). BP settlement brings unprecedented money to coastal restoration efforts. The Lens (12 November 2015). Available at: http://thelensnola.org/2015/11/12/bp-settlement-brings-unprecedented-money-to-coastal-efforts/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Mazzoncini, M., Sapkota, T. B., Barberi, P., Antichi, D., and Risaliti, R. (2011). Long-term effect of tillage, nitrogen fertilization and cover crops on soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content. Soil & Tillage Research 114, 165–174.
Long-term effect of tillage, nitrogen fertilization and cover crops on soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McConnaughey, J. (2017). The Gulf of Mexico’s ‘dead zone’ is bigger than it has ever been before. Available at: http://time.com/4885249/gulf-mexico-dead-zone-pollution/ (accessed 3 August 2017).

McLellan, E., Robertson, D., Schilling, K., Tomer, M., Kostel, J., Smith, D., and King, K. (2015). Reducing nitrogen export from the Corn Belt to the Gulf of Mexico: agricultural strategies for remediating hypoxia. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 51, 263–289.
Reducing nitrogen export from the Corn Belt to the Gulf of Mexico: agricultural strategies for remediating hypoxia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhvVOhtLk%3D&md5=ea32c52e10dc8f22d440292a3a33e5bdCAS |

Meyer, S. E., and Warren, T. W. (2015). Seeding big sagebrush successfully on Intermountain rangelands. Great Basin Factsheet Series 10, 1–5. Available at: www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_journals/2015/rmrs_2015_meyer_s003.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Minnesota (2017). What can I plant in the buffers? Available at: https://mn.gov/portal/natural-resources/buffer-law/plant/ (accessed 3 August 2017).

Mitchell, R. J., Hiers, J. K., O’Brien, J. J., Jack, S. B., and Engstrom, R. T. (2006). Silviculture that sustains: the nexus between silviculture, frequent prescribed fire, and conservation of biodiversity in longleaf pine forests of the southeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 2724–2736.
Silviculture that sustains: the nexus between silviculture, frequent prescribed fire, and conservation of biodiversity in longleaf pine forests of the southeastern United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mitsch, W. J., and Day, J. W. (2006). Restoration of wetlands in the Mississippi-Ohio-Missouri (MOM) River Basin: experience and needed research. Ecological Engineering 26, 55–69.
Restoration of wetlands in the Mississippi-Ohio-Missouri (MOM) River Basin: experience and needed research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mossa, J. (2016). The changing geomorphology of the Atchafalaya River, Louisiana: a historical perspective. Geomorphology 252, 112–127.
The changing geomorphology of the Atchafalaya River, Louisiana: a historical perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Mozdzer, T. J., and Zieman, J. C. (2010). Ecophysiological differences between genetic lineages facilitate the invasion of non-native Phragmites australis in North American Atlantic coast wetlands. Journal of Ecology 98, 451–458.
Ecophysiological differences between genetic lineages facilitate the invasion of non-native Phragmites australis in North American Atlantic coast wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

National Park Service (2017a). Elwha River restoration research. Available at: www.nps.gov/olym/learn/nature/elwha-research-efforts.htm (accessed 10 March 2017).

National Park Service (2017b). History of the Elwha – overview. Available at: www.nps.gov/olym/learn/historyculture/history-of-the-elwha-overview.htm (accessed 10 March 2017).

Nijhuis, M. (2014). World’s largest dam removal unleashes U.S. river after century of electric production. National Geographic (27 August 2014). Available at: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140826-elwha-river-dam-removal-salmon-science-olympic/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

O’Neill, P. M., Shanahan, J. F., Schepers, J. S., and Caldwell, B. (2004). Agronomic responses of corn hybrids from different eras to deficit and adequate levels of water and nitrogen. Agronomy Journal 96, 1660–1667.
Agronomic responses of corn hybrids from different eras to deficit and adequate levels of water and nitrogen.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Obama, B. (2014). Presidential memorandum – creating a federal strategy to promote the health of honey bees and other pollinators. Available at: www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/20/presidential-memorandum-creating-federal-strategy-promote-health-honey-b (accessed 2 August 2017).

Oreska, M. P. J., Truitt, B., Orth, R. J., and Lukenbach, M. W. (2017). The bay scallop (Argopecten irradians) industry collapse in Virginia and its implications for the successful management of scallop-seagrass habitats. Marine Policy 75, 116–124.
The bay scallop (Argopecten irradians) industry collapse in Virginia and its implications for the successful management of scallop-seagrass habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Orth, R. J., Heck, K. L., and van Montfrans, J. (1984). Faunal communities in seagrass beds: a review of the influence of plant structure and prey characteristics of predator-prey relationships. Estuaries 7, 339–350.
Faunal communities in seagrass beds: a review of the influence of plant structure and prey characteristics of predator-prey relationships.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Orth, R. J., Marion, S. R., Moore, K. A., and Wilcox, D. J. (2010). Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in the Chesapeake Bay region of mid-Atlantic coast of the USA: challenges in conservation and practice. Estuaries and Coasts 33, 139–150.
Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in the Chesapeake Bay region of mid-Atlantic coast of the USA: challenges in conservation and practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Peters, R. J., Liermann, M., McHenry, M. L., Bakke, P., and Pess, G. R. (2017). Changes in streambed composition in salmonid spawning habitat of the Elwha River during dam removal. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 53, 871–885.
Changes in streambed composition in salmonid spawning habitat of the Elwha River during dam removal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pimentel, D., and Patzek, T. W. (2005). Ethanol production using corn, soybeans, and wood; biodiesel production using soybean and sunflower. Natural Resources Research 14, 65–76.
Ethanol production using corn, soybeans, and wood; biodiesel production using soybean and sunflower.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXlsFaltLk%3D&md5=6decff2f4f13fd957ac66a4a90caef3eCAS |

Poeplau, C., and Don, A. (2015). Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils via cultivation of cover crops – a meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 200, 33–41.
Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils via cultivation of cover crops – a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhvVOkt7rO&md5=c534bc8c3a690a05114136e4ab7648b1CAS |

Quirion, B., Simek, Z., Dávalos, A., and Blossey, B. (2017). Management of invasive Phragmites australis in the Adirondacks: a cautionary tale about prospects of eradication. Biological Invasions , .
Management of invasive Phragmites australis in the Adirondacks: a cautionary tale about prospects of eradication.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ray, H. S., Petrick, C., and Jeheber-Matthews, S. (2017). Accelerating longleaf restoration. Available at: www.fs.fed.us/restoration/documents/cflrp/results/AcceleratingLongleaf/AcceleratingLongleafRestorationCFLRPnfsFL.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

RECOVER (2017). RECOVER workshop case study: Kissimmee River restoration. Available at: http://adaptivemanagement.net/sites/default/files/Kissimmeecasestudy.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Reisner, M. D., Grace, J. B., Pyke, D. A., and Doescher, P. S. (2013). Conditions favouring Bromus tectorum dominance of endangered sagebrush steppe ecosystems. Journal of Applied Ecology 50, 1039–1049.
Conditions favouring Bromus tectorum dominance of endangered sagebrush steppe ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Richardson, B. A., Ortiz, H. G., Carlson, S. L., Jaeger, D. M., and Shaw, N. L. (2015). Genetic and environmental effects on seed weight in subspecies of big sagebrush: applications for restoration. Ecosphere 6, 201.
Genetic and environmental effects on seed weight in subspecies of big sagebrush: applications for restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rosen, T., and Xu, Y. J. (2013). Recent decadal growth of the Atchafalaya River Delta complex: effects of variable riverine sediment input and vegetation succession. Geomorphology 194, 108–120.
Recent decadal growth of the Atchafalaya River Delta complex: effects of variable riverine sediment input and vegetation succession.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rowe, H. I. (2010). Tricks of the trade: techniques and opinions from 38 experts in tallgrass prairie restoration. Restoration Ecology 18, 253–262.
Tricks of the trade: techniques and opinions from 38 experts in tallgrass prairie restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Salo, L. F. (2004). Population dynamics of red brome (Bromus madritensis subsp. rubens): times for concern, opportunities for management. Journal of Arid Environments 57, 291–296.
Population dynamics of red brome (Bromus madritensis subsp. rubens): times for concern, opportunities for management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Saltonstall, K. (2002). Cryptic invasion by a non-native genotype of the common reed, Phragmites australis, into North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99, 2445–2449.
Cryptic invasion by a non-native genotype of the common reed, Phragmites australis, into North America.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XitVSqsro%3D&md5=b5d747ff1c7ed0356e1abd266e83e491CAS |

Schulte, D. M., Burke, R. P., and Lipcius, R. N. (2009). Unprecedented restoration of a native oyster metapopulation. Science 325, 1124–1128.
Unprecedented restoration of a native oyster metapopulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhtVersr%2FN&md5=66e0520b2eb7c0b1629e56bb90e3b8f7CAS |

Seamon, G. (1998). A longleaf pine sandhill restoration in northwest Florida. Restoration and Management Notes 16, 46–50.

Smith, D. A. (1990). Tallgrass prairie settlement: prelude to the demise of the tallgrass ecosystem. Proceedings of the North American Prairie Conference 12, 195–200.

Snider, A. (2016). The war over Chesapeake Bay. Politico (25 May 2016). Available at: www.politico.com/agenda/story/2016/05/obama-chesapeake-bay-restoration-000127 (accessed 10 March 2017).

Stagg, C., and Whilden, M. (1997). The Chesapeake Bay’s blue crab (Callinectes sapidus): fisheries and management. Investigaciones Marinas Valparaíso 25, 93–104.

Stromberg, J. C., Chew, M. K., Nagler, P. L., and Glenn, E. P. (2009). Changing perceptions of change: the role of scientists in Tamarix and river management. Restoration Ecology 17, 177–186.
Changing perceptions of change: the role of scientists in Tamarix and river management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stuebner, S. (2017). Juniper tree removal re-opens meadow areas for native plants, sage-grouse, wildlife and cattle. Available at: www.lifeontherange.org/assets/docs/range-stories/juniper-control/juniper-controlfeature-story.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Tilley, D. J., and St. John, L. (2012). Plant Guide for common reed (Phragmites australis). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service. Available at: https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_phau7.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Toth, L. A., Arrington, D. A., Brady, M. A., and Muszick, D. A. (1995). Conceptual evaluation of factors potentially affecting restoration of habitat structure within the channelized Kissimmee River ecosystem. Restoration Ecology 3, 160–180.
Conceptual evaluation of factors potentially affecting restoration of habitat structure within the channelized Kissimmee River ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Turner, R. M. (1982). Mojave desertscrub. Desert Plants 4, 157–168.

Urbatsch, L. (2000). Chinese tallow tree (Triadica sebifera [L.] Small). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service. Available at: https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_trse6.pdf (accessed 10 March 2017).

Van Lear, D. H., Carroll, W. D., Kapeluck, P. R., and Johnson, R. (2005). History and restoration of the longleaf pine-grassland ecosystem: implications for species at risk. Forest Ecology and Management 211, 150–165.
History and restoration of the longleaf pine-grassland ecosystem: implications for species at risk.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Virginia Institute of Marine Science (2017). SAV in Chesapeake Bay and coastal bays. Available at: http://web.vims.edu/bio/sav/restoration/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Warrick, J. A., Duda, J. J., Magirl, C. S., and Curran, C. A. (2012). River turbidity and sediment loads during dam removal. Eos 93, 425–426.
River turbidity and sediment loads during dam removal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wheeler, T. B. (2016a). Researchers examining effectiveness of stream restoration. Bay Journal (23 October 2016) Available at: www.bayjournal.com/article/researchers_examining_effectiveness_of_stream_restoration (accessed 10 March 2017).

Wheeler, T. B. (2016b). Squabbles threaten future of Chesapeake’s oyster restoration. Bay Journal (9 March 2016). Available at: www.bayjournal.com/article/squabbles_threaten_future_of_chesapeakes_oyster_restoration (accessed 10 March 2017).

Winter, B. D., and Crain, P. (2008). Making the case for ecosystem restoration by dam removal in the Elwha River, Washington. Northwest Science 82, 13–28.
Making the case for ecosystem restoration by dam removal in the Elwha River, Washington.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wirth, T. A., and Pyke, D. A. (2003). Restoring forbs for sage grouse habitat: fire, microsites, and establishment methods. Restoration Ecology 11, 370–377.
Restoring forbs for sage grouse habitat: fire, microsites, and establishment methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wright, C. K., and Wimberly, M. C. (2013). Recent land use change in the Western Corn Belt threatens grasslands and wetlands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110, 4134–4139.
Recent land use change in the Western Corn Belt threatens grasslands and wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXltVCgsrg%3D&md5=5defe0513bab4900ae4f2c66a6ba2286CAS |

Y-charts (2016). US corn acres planted. Available at: https://ycharts.com/indicators/us_corn_acres_planted (accessed 10 March 2017).

Yeoman, B. (2010a). Louisiana’s great wet hope. Available at: http://barryyeoman.com/2010/12/louisianas-great-wet-hope-atchafalaya/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Yeoman, B. (2010b). Restoring the marsh, one hated tree at a time. Available at: http://barryyeoman.com/2010/12/restoring-louisiana-marsh-tallow/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Yeoman, B. (2010c). The land is washing back to the sea. Available at: http://barryyeoman.com/2010/11/pointe-a-chien-indian/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Yeoman, B. (2011). Saving Louisiana: what can we do? Available at: http://barryyeoman.com/2011/01/saving-louisiana-land-loss/ (accessed 10 March 2017).

Zohar, Y., Hines, A. H., Zmora, O., Johnson, E. G., Lipcius, R. N., Seitz, R. D., Eggleston, D. B., Place, A. R., Scott, E. J., Stubblefield, J. D., and Chung, J. S. (2008). The Chesapeake Bay blue crab (Callinectes sapidus): a multidisciplinary approach to responsible stock replacement. Reviews in Fisheries Science 16, 24–34.
The Chesapeake Bay blue crab (Callinectes sapidus): a multidisciplinary approach to responsible stock replacement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |