Insect herbivory on snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora, Myrtaceae) saplings near the alpine treeline: the influence of local- and landscape-scale processes
Citra D. Dashiell A , Shannon LeBel A , Peter T. Green A , Susanna E. Venn A B C and John W. Morgan A B D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic. 3086, Australia.
B Research Centre for Applied Alpine Ecology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic. 3086, Australia.
C Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Acton, ACT 2600, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: J.Morgan@latrobe.edu.au
Australian Journal of Botany 65(7) 582-592 https://doi.org/10.1071/BT17129
Submitted: 10 July 2017 Accepted: 19 October 2017 Published: 14 November 2017
Abstract
The distribution and abundance of plant species in high mountain ecosystems are thought to depend largely on abiotic factors that play out at both landscape scales (e.g. steep environmental gradients affected by increasing elevation) and local scales (e.g. changes in topography, aspect and canopy cover). However, relatively little attention has been paid to biotic interactions, and how these might also change with landscape-wide and local factors. Ecological interactions between plants and insect herbivores are likely to alter species performance and affect local abundance, but their role in the Australian Alps remains largely unexplored. Here, we examine the prediction that the amount of herbivory on saplings of the dominant high elevation tree, snow gum Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng. (Myrtaceae), are lower at higher elevation because of increasing environmental stress. Using a reciprocal transplant experiment, we tested the prediction that origin of seed (low, mid, high elevation) has less effect on insect herbivory than environmentally-driven changes in plant morphology (height, leaf thickness, specific leaf area). Across all mountains studied, herbivory was best explained by a combination of plant height, canopy openness, leaf thickness and elevation, but not seed origin. This study highlights the individuality of each mountain environment, at landscape and local scales, as well as the complexity of relationships between environmental change, plants and insects. Given the factors that best explain herbivory across mountains, herbivory may decrease with decreasing productivity associated with increasing elevation, a trend in broad agreement with hypotheses associating leaf area loss to the availability of resources and plant vigour.
Additional keywords: biotic interactions, elevation, gradient study, plant–insect interactions, seed provenance.
References
Alexander JM (2016) Experiments link competition and climate change responses. Journal of Vegetation Science 27, 217–218.| Experiments link competition and climate change responses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Alexander JM, Diez JM, Hart SP, Levine JM (2016) When climate reshuffles competitors: a call for experimental macroecology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 31, 831–841.
| When climate reshuffles competitors: a call for experimental macroecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ashton DH, Williams RJ (1989) Dynamics of the sub-alpine vegetation in the Victorian region. In ‘The scientific significance of the Australian Alps’. (Ed. R Good) pp. 143–168. (CPN Publishers: Melbourne)
Atkin OK, Botman B, Lambers H (1996) The causes of inherently slow growth in alpine plants: an analysis based on the underlying carbon economies of alpine and lowland Poa species. Functional Ecology 10, 698–707.
| The causes of inherently slow growth in alpine plants: an analysis based on the underlying carbon economies of alpine and lowland Poa species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bale JS, Masters GJ, Hodkinson ID, Awmack C, Bezemer TM, Brown VK, Butterfield J, Buse A, Coulson JC, Farrar J, Good JEG, Harrington R, Hartley S, Jones TH, Lindroth RL, Press MC, Symrnioudis I, Watt AD, Whittaker JB (2002) Herbivory in global climate change research: direct effects of rising temperature on insect herbivores. Global Change Biology 8, 1–16.
| Herbivory in global climate change research: direct effects of rising temperature on insect herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ball MC, Hodges VS, Laughlin GP (1991) Cold-induced photoinhibition limits regeneration of snow gum at tree-line. Functional Ecology 5, 663–668.
| Cold-induced photoinhibition limits regeneration of snow gum at tree-line.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ball MC, Egerton JJG, Leuning R, Cunningham RB, Dunne P (1997) Microclimate above grass adversely affects spring growth of seedling snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora). Plant, Cell & Environment 20, 155–166.
| Microclimate above grass adversely affects spring growth of seedling snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bragança M, DeSouza O, Zanuncio JC (1998) Environmental heterogeneity as a strategy for pest management in Eucalyptus plantations. Forest Ecology and Management 102, 9–12.
| Environmental heterogeneity as a strategy for pest management in Eucalyptus plantations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bryant WG (1971) Grazing, burning and regeneration of tree seedlings in Eucalyptus pauciflora woodlands. Journal of the Soil Conservation Service of NSW 27, 121–134.
Burdon JJ, Chilvers GA (1974) Leaf parasites on altitudinal populations of Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng. Australian Journal of Botany 22, 265–269.
| Leaf parasites on altitudinal populations of Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Byars SG, Papst W, Hoffmann AA (2007) Local adaptation and cogradient selection in the alpine plant, Poa hiemata, along a narrow altitudinal gradient. Evolution 61, 2925–2941.
| Local adaptation and cogradient selection in the alpine plant, Poa hiemata, along a narrow altitudinal gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Close D, McArthur C, Pietrzykowski E, Fitzgerald H, Paterson S (2004) Evaluating effects of nursery and post-planting nutrient regimes on leaf chemistry and browsing of eucalypt seedlings in plantations. Forest Ecology and Management 200, 101–112.
| Evaluating effects of nursery and post-planting nutrient regimes on leaf chemistry and browsing of eucalypt seedlings in plantations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Close D, McArthur C, Hagerman AE, Fitzgerald H (2005) Differential distribution of leaf chemistry in eucalypt seedlings due to variation in whole-plant nutrient availability. Phytochemistry 66, 215–221.
| Differential distribution of leaf chemistry in eucalypt seedlings due to variation in whole-plant nutrient availability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXksVektQ%3D%3D&md5=0494395445f111a05ce0abf341fc3efaCAS |
Coley PD, Bryant JP, Chapin FS (1985) Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science 230, 895–899.
| Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cvhvF2msw%3D%3D&md5=9422eb2672e76f42f22ca80c9e7f6056CAS |
Cooper PD (2001) What physiological processes permit insects to eat Eucalyptus leaves? Austral Ecology 26, 556–562.
| What physiological processes permit insects to eat Eucalyptus leaves?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cornelissen JHC, Lavorel S, Garnier E, Díaz S, Buchmann N, Gurvich DE, Reich PB, ter Steege H, Morgan HD, van der Heijden MGA, Pausas JG, Poorter H (2003) A handbook of protocols for standarised and easy measurement of plant functional traits worldwide. Australian Journal of Botany 51, 335–380.
| A handbook of protocols for standarised and easy measurement of plant functional traits worldwide.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cornelissen T, Wilson Fernandes G, Vasconcellos-Neto J (2008) Size does matter: variation in herbivory between and within plants and the plant vigor hypothesis. Oikos 117, 1121–1130.
| Size does matter: variation in herbivory between and within plants and the plant vigor hypothesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crawley MJ (1983) ‘Herbivory: the dynamics of animal–plant interactions.’ (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Melbourne)
de Freitas FA, Zanuncio TV, Zanuncio JC, da Conceição PM, Fialho MCQ, Bernardino AS (2005) Effect of plant age, temperature and rainfall on Lepidoptera insect pests collected with light traps in a Eucalyptus grandis plantation in Brazil. Annals of Forest Science 62, 85–90.
| Effect of plant age, temperature and rainfall on Lepidoptera insect pests collected with light traps in a Eucalyptus grandis plantation in Brazil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Driessen M, Kirkpatrick JB, McQuillan PB (2013) Shifts in composition of monthly invertebrate assemblages in moorland differed between lowland and montane locations but not fire-age. Environmental Entomology 42, 58–73.
| Shifts in composition of monthly invertebrate assemblages in moorland differed between lowland and montane locations but not fire-age.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Edwards PB, Wanjura W, Brown W (1993) Selective herbivory by Christmas beetles in response to intraspecific variation in Eucalyptus terpenoids. Oecologia 95, 551–557.
| Selective herbivory by Christmas beetles in response to intraspecific variation in Eucalyptus terpenoids.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Endara M-J, Coley PD (2011) The resource availability hypothesis revisited: a meta-analysis. Functional Ecology 25, 389–398.
| The resource availability hypothesis revisited: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fox LR, Macauley B (1977) Insect grazing on Eucalyptus in response to variation in leaf tannins and nitrogen. Oecologia 29, 145–162.
| Insect grazing on Eucalyptus in response to variation in leaf tannins and nitrogen.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fraenkel GS (1959) The raison d’etre of secondary plant substances. Science 129, 1466–1470.
| The raison d’etre of secondary plant substances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaG1MXosVWlug%3D%3D&md5=4ba81b3f32554e8efee0a64d5bfd2ddbCAS |
Frazer GW, Canham CD, Lertzman KP (1999) ‘Gap light analyser (GLA) ver. 2.0: imaging software to extract canopy structure and gap light transmission indices from true-colour fisheye photographs. User’s manual.’ (Institute of Ecosystem Studies: Millbrook, NY, USA)
Garibaldi L, Kitzberger T, Chaneton E (2011) Environmental and genetic control of insect abundance and herbivory along a forest elevational gradient. Oecologia 167, 117–129.
| Environmental and genetic control of insect abundance and herbivory along a forest elevational gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gauli A, Vaillancourt RE, Bailey TG, Steane DA, Potts BM (2015) Evidence for local climate adaptation in early-life traits of Tasmanian populations of Eucalyptus pauciflora. Tree Genetics & Genomes 11, 104
| Evidence for local climate adaptation in early-life traits of Tasmanian populations of Eucalyptus pauciflora.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Green K (2014) Growing season air temperature lapse rate in the Snowy Mountains. Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal 64, 289–291.
| Growing season air temperature lapse rate in the Snowy Mountains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Guedes R (2000) Species richness and fluctuation of defoliator Lepidoptera populations in Brazilian plantations of Eucalyptus grandis as affected by plant age and weather factors. Forest Ecology and Management 137, 179–184.
| Species richness and fluctuation of defoliator Lepidoptera populations in Brazilian plantations of Eucalyptus grandis as affected by plant age and weather factors.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hodkinson ID (2005) Terrestrial insects along elevation gradients: species and community responses to elevation. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 80, 489–513.
| Terrestrial insects along elevation gradients: species and community responses to elevation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jordan G (2002) Susceptibility of Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus to sawfly (Perga affinis ssp. insularis) attack and its potential impact on plantation productivity. Forest Ecology and Management 160, 189–199.
| Susceptibility of Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus to sawfly (Perga affinis ssp. insularis) attack and its potential impact on plantation productivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Judd TS, Bennett LT, Weston CJ, Attiwill PM, Whiteman PH (1996) The response of growth and foliar nutrients to fertilizers in young Eucalyptus globulus (Labill.) plantations in Gippsland, southeastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 82, 87–101.
| The response of growth and foliar nutrients to fertilizers in young Eucalyptus globulus (Labill.) plantations in Gippsland, southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkpatrick JB, Bridle KL (1998) Environmental relationships of floristic variation in the alpine vegetation of southeast Australia. Journal of Vegetation Science 9, 251–260.
| Environmental relationships of floristic variation in the alpine vegetation of southeast Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkpatrick JB, Green K, Bridle KL, Venn SE (2014) Patterns of variation in Australian alpine soils and their relationships to parent material, vegetation formation, climate and topography. Catena 121, 186–194.
| Patterns of variation in Australian alpine soils and their relationships to parent material, vegetation formation, climate and topography.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Körner C (1999) ‘Alpine plant life – functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems’. (Springer-Verlag: Berlin)
Körner C (2007) The use of elevation in ecological research. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22, 569–574.
| The use of elevation in ecological research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Körner C (2016) When it gets cold, plant size matters – a comment on treeline. Journal of Vegetation Science 27, 6–7.
| When it gets cold, plant size matters – a comment on treeline.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Körner C, Basler D, Hoch G, Kollas C, Lenz A, Randin CF, Vitasse Y, Zimmermann NE (2016) Where, why and how? Explaining the low‐temperature range limits of temperate tree species. Journal of Ecology 104, 1076–1088.
| Where, why and how? Explaining the low‐temperature range limits of temperate tree species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kulman H (1971) Effects of insect defoliation on growth and mortality of trees. Annual Review of Entomology 16, 289–324.
| Effects of insect defoliation on growth and mortality of trees.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Landsberg JJ, Cork SJ (1997) Herbivory: interactions between eucalypts and the vertebrates and invertebrates that feed on them. In ‘Eucalypt ecology: individuals to ecosystems’. (Eds JE Williams, J Woinarski) pp. 342–72. Cambridge University Press: Melbourne)
Landsberg J, Gillieson DS (1995) Regional and local variation in insect herbivory, vegetation and soils of eucalypt associations in contrasted landscape position along a climatic gradient. Australian Journal of Ecology 20, 299–315.
| Regional and local variation in insect herbivory, vegetation and soils of eucalypt associations in contrasted landscape position along a climatic gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lawler IR, Foley WJ (2002) Chemical ecology of herbivory in Eucalyptus. In ‘Eucalyptus: the genus Eucalyptus’. (Ed. JJW Coppen) pp. 324–344. (Taylor & Francis: London, UK)
Lawler IR, Foley WJ, Woodrow IE, Cork SJ (1997) The effects of elevated CO2 atmospheres on the nutritional quality of Eucalyptus foliage and its interaction with soil nutrient and light availability. Oecologia 109, 59–68.
| The effects of elevated CO2 atmospheres on the nutritional quality of Eucalyptus foliage and its interaction with soil nutrient and light availability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lawrence R, Potts BM, Whitham TG (2003) Relative importance of plant ontogeny, host genetic variation, and leaf age for a common herbivore. Ecology 84, 1171–1178.
| Relative importance of plant ontogeny, host genetic variation, and leaf age for a common herbivore.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lowman MD (1995) Herbivory in Australian forests – a comparison of dry sclerophyll and rain forest canopies. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 115, 77–87.
Mac Nally R (1996) Hierarchical partitioning as an interpretative tool in multivariate inference. Australian Journal of Ecology 21, 224–228.
| Hierarchical partitioning as an interpretative tool in multivariate inference.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mattson WJ (1980) Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11, 119–161.
| Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moles AT, Bonser SP, Poore AG, Wallis IR, Foley WJ (2011) Assessing the evidence for latitudinal gradients in plant defence and herbivory. Functional Ecology 25, 380–388.
| Assessing the evidence for latitudinal gradients in plant defence and herbivory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Morrow PA, LaMarche VC (1978) Tree ring evidence for chronic insect suppression of productivity in subalpine Eucalyptus. Science 201, 1244–1246.
| Tree ring evidence for chronic insect suppression of productivity in subalpine Eucalyptus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cvjs1KntA%3D%3D&md5=7332a1c2ba6df48d614d5477a10597c3CAS |
Nahrung HF, Dunstan PK, Allen GR (2001) Larval gregariousness and neonate establishment of the eucalypt-feeding beetle Chrysophtharta agricola (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Paropsini). Oikos 94, 358–364.
| Larval gregariousness and neonate establishment of the eucalypt-feeding beetle Chrysophtharta agricola (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Paropsini).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ohgushi T (2005) Indirect interaction webs: herbivore-induced effects through trait change in plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 36, 81–105.
| Indirect interaction webs: herbivore-induced effects through trait change in plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ohmart C, Edwards P (1991) Insect herbivory on Eucalyptus. Annual Review of Entomology 36, 637–657.
| Insect herbivory on Eucalyptus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paine TD, Steinbauer MJ, Lawson SA (2011) Native and exotic pests of Eucalyptus: a worldwide perspective. Annual Review of Entomology 56, 181–201.
| Native and exotic pests of Eucalyptus: a worldwide perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtlSiu7g%3D&md5=07899206c93b3e317b43299632bda20fCAS |
Peeters PJ, Sanson G, Read J (2007) Leaf biomechanical properties and the densities of herbivorous insect guilds. Functional Ecology 21, 246–255.
| Leaf biomechanical properties and the densities of herbivorous insect guilds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Price PW (1991) The plant vigor hypothesis and herbivore attack. Oikos 62, 244–251.
| The plant vigor hypothesis and herbivore attack.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Price PW, Denno RF, Eubanks MD, Finke DL, Kaplan I (2011) ‘Insect ecology: behaviour, populations and communities.’ (Cambridge University Press: New York)
Pryor LD (1956) Variation in snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieb.). Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 81, 299–305.
Quinn GP, Keough MJ (2002) ‘Experimental design and data analysis for biologists.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
Rapley LP, Allen GR, Potts BM (2004) Genetic variation in Eucalyptus globulus in relation to susceptibility from attack by the southern eucalypt leaf beetle, Chrysophtharta agricola. Australian Journal of Botany 52, 747–756.
| Genetic variation in Eucalyptus globulus in relation to susceptibility from attack by the southern eucalypt leaf beetle, Chrysophtharta agricola.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Read J, Sanson GD, Caldwell E, Clissold FJ, Chatain A, Peeters P, Lamont BB, De Garine-Wichatitsky M, Jaffré T, Kerr S (2009) Correlations between leaf toughness and phenolics among species in contrasting environments of Australia and New Caledonia. Annals of Botany 103, 757–767.
| Correlations between leaf toughness and phenolics among species in contrasting environments of Australia and New Caledonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXktlGgsb4%3D&md5=a853c98e1ffcc9394fe338031e3295f5CAS |
Scheidel U, Rohl S, Bruelheide H (2003) Altitudinal gradients of generalist and specialist herbivory on three montane Asteraceae. Acta Oecologica 24, 275–283.
| Altitudinal gradients of generalist and specialist herbivory on three montane Asteraceae.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Steinbauer MJ (2010) Latitudinal trends in foliar oils of eucalypts: environmental correlates and diversity of chrysomelid leaf-beetles. Austral Ecology 35, 204–213.
| Latitudinal trends in foliar oils of eucalypts: environmental correlates and diversity of chrysomelid leaf-beetles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Steinbauer MJ, Clarke RA, Madden LJ (1998) Oviposition preference of a Eucalyptus herbivore and the importance of leaf age on interspecific host choice. Ecological Entomology 23, 201–206.
| Oviposition preference of a Eucalyptus herbivore and the importance of leaf age on interspecific host choice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Steinbauer M, Schiestl F, Davies N (2004) Monoterpenes and epicuticular waxes help female autumn gum moth differentiate between waxy and glossy Eucalyptus and leaves of different ages. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30, 1117–1142.
| Monoterpenes and epicuticular waxes help female autumn gum moth differentiate between waxy and glossy Eucalyptus and leaves of different ages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXks1ait7g%3D&md5=d70d8a3d306a5442629a89f7c0ff94b4CAS |
Stone C (2001) Reducing the impact of insect herbivory in eucalypt plantations through management of extrinsic influences on tree vigour. Austral Ecology 26, 482–488.
| Reducing the impact of insect herbivory in eucalypt plantations through management of extrinsic influences on tree vigour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stone C, Bacon PE (1994) Relationships among moisture stress, insect herbivory, foliar cineole content and the growth of river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Journal of Applied Ecology 31, 604–612.
| Relationships among moisture stress, insect herbivory, foliar cineole content and the growth of river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Suzuki S (1998) Leaf phenology, seasonal changes in leaf quality and herbivory pattern of Sanguisorba tenuifolia at different elevations. Oecologia 117, 169–176.
| Leaf phenology, seasonal changes in leaf quality and herbivory pattern of Sanguisorba tenuifolia at different elevations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Venn SE, Morgan JW, Green PT (2009) Do facilitative interactions with neighbouring plants assist the growth of seedlings at high elevations in alpine Australia? Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 41, 381–387.
| Do facilitative interactions with neighbouring plants assist the growth of seedlings at high elevations in alpine Australia?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vile D, Gariner E, Shipley B, Laurent G, Navas M, Roumet C, Lavorel S, Diaz S, Hodgson J, Lloret F, Midgley G, Porter H, Rutherford M, Wilson P, Wright I (2005) Specific leaf area and dry matter content estimate thickness in laminar leaves. Annals of Botany 96, 1129–1136.
| Specific leaf area and dry matter content estimate thickness in laminar leaves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
White TCR (1984) The abundance of invertebrate herbivores in relation to the availability of nitrogen in stressed food plants. Oecologia 63, 90–105.
| The abundance of invertebrate herbivores in relation to the availability of nitrogen in stressed food plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC1cznvFKrsg%3D%3D&md5=1705f238d840971fd0297ee8751b4dafCAS |
Williams RJ (1987) Patterns of air temperature and accumulation of snow in subalpine heathlands and grasslands on the Bogong High Plains, Victoria. Australian Journal of Ecology 12, 153–163.
| Patterns of air temperature and accumulation of snow in subalpine heathlands and grasslands on the Bogong High Plains, Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams JE (1990) The importance of herbivory in the population dynamics of three subalpine eucalypts in the Brindabella Range, south-east Australia. Austral Ecology 15, 51–55.
| The importance of herbivory in the population dynamics of three subalpine eucalypts in the Brindabella Range, south-east Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
