Register      Login
Australian Journal of Zoology Australian Journal of Zoology Society
Evolutionary, molecular and comparative zoology
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Turning the threat into a solution: using roadways to survey cryptic species and to identify locations for conservation

James H. Baxter-Gilbert A B D , Julia L. Riley A B , Sean P. Boyle A , David Lesbarrères A C and Jacqueline D. Litzgus A C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Department of Biology, Laurentian University, 935 Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada.

B Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.

C These authors contributed equally to this work.

D Corresponding author. Email: jx_baxtergilbert@laurentian.ca

Australian Journal of Zoology 66(1) 50-56 https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO17047
Submitted: 11 August 2017  Accepted: 8 November 2017   Published: 11 December 2017

Abstract

Freshwater turtles are one of the most imperilled groups of vertebrates globally, and roads have been associated with their decline. Although roads are typically viewed as an imminent threat to population persistence, because of direct mortality and increased landscape fragmentation, we argue that they are an important sampling tool for collecting a wide variety of data that can inform conservation efforts. Road surveys can yield important presence data when conducting species inventories, particularly for cryptic species, and can also indicate where to implement road mitigation measures. Our research examined three road survey methods from two previous studies (walking versus bicycling and walking versus driving) to test their relative effectiveness at locating turtles. We found that walking surveys yielded the highest number of turtles per kilometre; however, bicycling and driving surveys also presented advantages (specifically, the ability to survey longer lengths of road more quickly). We recommend using walking surveys in areas of specific interest (e.g. to investigate suitable habitat for imperilled species or to investigate the presence of cryptic species), and bicycling or driving surveys between sections of specific interest. Road survey methods could be used in addition to more traditional sampling approaches (e.g. trapping and visual surveys), and do not need to be restricted to areas where roadwork projects are in progress or being planned. Road surveys could also be used during general environmental assessments and ecological research, to effectively incorporate turtle presence data into conservation efforts.

Additional keywords: environmental assessment, mitigation, road ecology, road mortality, survey methods.


References

Antworth, R. L., Pike, D. A., and Stevens, E. E. (2005). Hit and run: effects of scavenging on estimates of roadkilled vertebrates. Southeastern Naturalist 4, 647–656.
Hit and run: effects of scavenging on estimates of roadkilled vertebrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Aresco, M. J. (2005a). Mitigation measures to reduce highway mortality of turtles and other herpetofauna at a north Florida lake. Journal of Wildlife Management 69, 549–560.
Mitigation measures to reduce highway mortality of turtles and other herpetofauna at a north Florida lake.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Aresco, M. J. (2005b). The effect of sex-specific terrestrial movements and roads on the sex ratio of freshwater turtles. Biological Conservation 123, 37–44.
The effect of sex-specific terrestrial movements and roads on the sex ratio of freshwater turtles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Armstrong, G., and Reid, J. (1992). The rediscovery of the Adelaide pygmy bluetongue, Tiliqua adelaidensis (Peters, 1863). Herpetofauna 22, 3–6.

Baker, P. J., Harris, S., Robertson, C. P., Saunders, G., and White, P. C. (2004). Is it possible to monitor mammal population changes from counts of road traffic casualties? An analysis using Bristol’s red foxes Vulpes vulpes as an example. Mammal Review 34, 115–130.
Is it possible to monitor mammal population changes from counts of road traffic casualties? An analysis using Bristol’s red foxes Vulpes vulpes as an example.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Riley, J. L., and Litzgus, J. D. (2013a). Sistrurus catenatus catenatus (eastern Massasauga rattlesnake) diet. Herpetological Review 44, 526–527.

Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Riley, J. L., and Litzgus, J. D. (2013b). Chrysemys picta marginata (midland painted turtle) avian predation. Herpetological Review 44, 302–303.

Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Riley, J. L., and Litzgus, J. D. (2013c). Chrysemys picta marginata (midland painted turtle) and Emydoidea blandingii (Blanding’s turtle) hatchling mortality. Herpetological Review 44, 303–304.

Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Riley, J. L., Mastromonaco, G. F., Litzgus, J. D., and Lesbarrères, D. (2014). A novel technique to measure chronic levels of corticosterone in turtles living around a major roadway. Conservation Physiology 2, cou036.
A novel technique to measure chronic levels of corticosterone in turtles living around a major roadway.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Riley, J. L., Lesbarrères, D., and Litzgus, J. D. (2015a). Mitigating reptile road mortality: fence failures compromise ecopassage effectiveness. PLoS One 10, e0120537.
Mitigating reptile road mortality: fence failures compromise ecopassage effectiveness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Riley, J. L., Neufeld, C. J., Litzgus, J. D., and Lesbarrères, D. (2015b). Road mortality potentially responsible for billions of pollinating insect deaths annually. Journal of Insect Conservation 19, 1029–1035.
Road mortality potentially responsible for billions of pollinating insect deaths annually.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Beckmann, C., and Shine, R. (2015). Do the numbers and locations of road‐killed anuran carcasses accurately reflect impacts of vehicular traffic? Journal of Wildlife Management 79, 92–101.
Do the numbers and locations of road‐killed anuran carcasses accurately reflect impacts of vehicular traffic?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Böhm, M., et al (2013). The conservation status of the world’s reptiles. Biological Conservation 157, 372–385.
The conservation status of the world’s reptiles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Boyle, S. P., Litzgus, J. D., and Lesbarrères, D. (2017). Comparison of road surveys and circuit theory to predict hotspot locations for implementing road-effect mitigation. Biodiversity and Conservation , .
Comparison of road surveys and circuit theory to predict hotspot locations for implementing road-effect mitigation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brown, G. P., and Brooks, R. J. (1994). Characteristics of and fidelity to hibernacula in a northern population of snapping turtles, Chelydra serpentina. Copeia 1994, 222–226.
Characteristics of and fidelity to hibernacula in a northern population of snapping turtles, Chelydra serpentina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Browning, R. C., Baker, E. A., Herron, J. A., and Kram, R. (2006). Effects of obesity and sex on the energetic cost and preferred speed of walking. Journal of Applied Physiology 100, 390–398.
Effects of obesity and sex on the energetic cost and preferred speed of walking.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bury, R. B., Barkhurst, C., Horn, R., Todd, L., Wray, S., Goggans, R., Beal, K., and Sisk, N. (2001). Western pond turtle: survey protocol and monitoring plan (final draft). Interagency Western Pond Turtle Working Group.

Case, R. M. (1978). Interstate highway road-killed animals: a data source for biologists. Wildlife Society Bulletin 6, 8–13.

Congdon, J. D., Dunham, A. E., and Sels, R. V. L. (1994). Demographics of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina): implications for conservation and management of long-lived organisms. American Zoologist 34, 397–408.
Demographics of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina): implications for conservation and management of long-lived organisms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Crawford, B. A., Maerz, J. C., Nibbelink, N. P., Buhlmann, K. A., Norton, T. M., and Albeke, S. E. (2014). Hot spots and hot moments of diamondback terrapin road‐crossing activity. Journal of Applied Ecology 51, 367–375.
Hot spots and hot moments of diamondback terrapin road‐crossing activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dorcas, M. E., Willson, J. D., Reed, R. N., Snow, R. W., Rochford, M. R., Miller, M. A., Meshaka, W. E., Andreadis, P. T., Mazzotti, F. J., Romagosa, C. M., and Hart, K. M. (2012). Severe mammal declines coincide with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, 2418–2422.
Severe mammal declines coincide with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XivFSjsLY%3D&md5=f3328461bbb52e1f9cce290aecc90bc2CAS |

Enge, K. M., and Wood, K. N. (2002). A pedestrian road survey of an upland snake community in Florida. Southeastern Naturalist 1, 365–380.
A pedestrian road survey of an upland snake community in Florida.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Forero-Medina, G., Cárdenas-Arévalo, G., and Castaño-Mora, O. V. (2012). Habitat modelling of Dahl’s toad-headed turtle (Mesoclemmys dahli) in Colombia. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 7, 313–322.

Garrah, E., Danby, R. K., Eberhardt, E., Cunnington, G. M., and Mitchell, S. (2015). Hot spots and hot times: wildlife road mortality in a regional conservation corridor. Environmental Management 56, 874–889.
Hot spots and hot times: wildlife road mortality in a regional conservation corridor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gehrt, S. D., Hubert, G. F., and Ellis, J. A. (2002). Long-term population trends of raccoons in Illinois. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30, 457–463.

Gibbs, J. P., and Shriver, W. G. (2002). Estimating the effects of road mortality on turtle populations. Conservation Biology 16, 1647–1652.
Estimating the effects of road mortality on turtle populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gibbs, J. P., and Steen, D. A. (2005). Trends in sex ratios of turtles in the United States: implications of road mortality. Conservation Biology 19, 552–556.

Guinard, E., Prodon, R., and Barbraud, C. (2015). Case study: a robust method to obtain defensible data on wildlife mortality. In ‘Handbook of Road Ecology’. (Eds R. van der Ree, D. J. Smith and C. Grilo.) pp. 96–100. (John Wiley & Sons: West Sussex, UK.)

Koper, N., and Brooks, R. J. (1998). Population-size estimators and unequal catchability in painted turtles. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76, 458–465.
Population-size estimators and unequal catchability in painted turtles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Langen, T. A., Machniak, A., Crowe, E. K., Mangan, C., Marker, D. F., Liddle, N., and Roden, B. (2007). Methodologies for surveying herpetofauna mortality on rural highways. Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 1361–1368.
Methodologies for surveying herpetofauna mortality on rural highways.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Laporte, M., Silva Beaudry, C. O., and Angers, B. (2013). Effects of road proximity on genetic diversity and reproductive success of the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta). Conservation Genetics 14, 21–30.
Effects of road proximity on genetic diversity and reproductive success of the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lindenmayer, D. B., Clark, T. W., Lacy, R. C., and Thomas, V. C. (1993). Population viability analysis as a tool in wildlife conservation policy: with reference to Australia. Environmental Management 17, 745–758.
Population viability analysis as a tool in wildlife conservation policy: with reference to Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Litzgus, J. D. (2006). Sex differences in longevity in the spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata). Copeia 2006, 281–288.
Sex differences in longevity in the spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Loehr, V. J. (2012). Road mortality in the greater padloper, Homopus femoralis (Testudinidae). Chelonian Conservation and Biology 11, 226–229.
Road mortality in the greater padloper, Homopus femoralis (Testudinidae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Loughry, W. J., and McDonough, C. M. (1996). Are road kills valid indicators of armadillo population structure? American Midland Naturalist 135, 53–59.
Are road kills valid indicators of armadillo population structure?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

MacCulloch, R. D. (2002). ‘The ROM Field Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Ontario.’ (McClelland and Stewart: Toronto.)

Mali, I., Brown, D. J., Jones, M. C., and Forstner, M. R. (2012). Switching bait as a method to improve freshwater turtle capture and recapture success with hoop net traps. Southeastern Naturalist 11, 311–318.
Switching bait as a method to improve freshwater turtle capture and recapture success with hoop net traps.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Markle, C. E., Gillingwater, S. D., Levick, R., and Chow‐Fraser, P. (2017). The true cost of partial fencing: evaluating strategies to reduce reptile road mortality. Wildlife Society Bulletin , .
The true cost of partial fencing: evaluating strategies to reduce reptile road mortality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ministry of Transportation Ontario (2012). Provincial highway traffic volume 1988–2010. Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Highway Standards Branch. Queen’s Printer for Ontario, Toronto, Canada.

O’Hara, R. B., and Kotze, D. J. (2010). Do not log-transform count data. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 1, 118–122.
Do not log-transform count data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (OMNRF) (2015a). Survey protocol for Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) in Ontario. Species Conservation Policy Branch, Peterborough, Canada.

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (OMNRF) (2015b). Survey protocol for spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) in Ontario. Species Conservation Policy Branch, Peterborough, Canada.

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (OMNRF) (2015c). Survey protocol for wood turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) in Ontario. Species Conservation Policy Branch, Peterborough, Canada.

Paterson, J. E., Steinberg, B., and Litzgus, J. D. (2012). Generally specialized or especially general? Habitat selection by snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) in central Ontario. Canadian Journal of Zoology 90, 139–149.
Generally specialized or especially general? Habitat selection by snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) in central Ontario.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paterson, J. E., Steinberg, B. D., and Litzgus, J. D. (2013). Not just any old pile of dirt: evaluating the use of artificial nesting mounds as conservation tools for freshwater turtles. Oryx 47, 607–615.
Not just any old pile of dirt: evaluating the use of artificial nesting mounds as conservation tools for freshwater turtles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pittman, S. E., and Dorcas, M. E. (2009). Movements, habitat use, and thermal ecology of an isolated population of bog turtles (Glyptemys muhlenbergii). Copeia 2009, 781–790.
Movements, habitat use, and thermal ecology of an isolated population of bog turtles (Glyptemys muhlenbergii).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Powell, R., Collins, J., and Hooper, E. (2012). ‘Key to the Herpetofauna of the Continental United States and Canada.’ Revised and Updated. (University of Kansas Press: Lawrence, KA.)

Riley, J. L., Baxter-Gilbert, J. H., Guglielmo, C. G., and Litzgus, J. D. (2016). Scanning snakes to measure condition: a validation of quantitative magnetic resonance. Journal of Herpetology 50, 627–632.
Scanning snakes to measure condition: a validation of quantitative magnetic resonance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Roe, J. H., and Georges, A. (2008). Terrestrial activity, movements and spatial ecology of an Australian freshwater turtle, Chelodina longicollis, in a temporally dynamic wetland system. Austral Ecology 33, 1045–1056.
Terrestrial activity, movements and spatial ecology of an Australian freshwater turtle, Chelodina longicollis, in a temporally dynamic wetland system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rowe, J. W., and Moll, E. O. (1991). A radiotelemetric study of activity and movements of the Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingi) in northeastern Illinois. Journal of Herpetology 25, 178–185.
A radiotelemetric study of activity and movements of the Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingi) in northeastern Illinois.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ryberg, W. A., Wolaver, B. D., Prestridge, H. L., Labay, B. J., Pierre, J. P., Costley, R. A., Adams, C. S., Bowers, B. C., and Hibbitts, T. J. (2017). Habitat modelling and conservation of the western chicken turtle (Dierochelys reticularia miara). Herpetological Conservation and Biology 12, 307–320.

Santos, S. M., Carvalho, F., and Mira, A. (2011). How long do the dead survive on the road? Carcass persistence probability and implications for road-kill monitoring surveys. PLoS One 6, e25383.
How long do the dead survive on the road? Carcass persistence probability and implications for road-kill monitoring surveys.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtlCjsrzE&md5=acaeb00e7948c29cb4c776549370326eCAS |

Santos, S. M., Marques, J. T., Lourenço, A., Medinas, D., Barbosa, A. M., Beja, P., and Mira, A. (2015). Sampling effects on the identification of roadkill hotspots: implications for survey design. Journal of Environmental Management 162, 87–95.
Sampling effects on the identification of roadkill hotspots: implications for survey design.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Shepard, D. B., Kuhns, A. R., Dreslik, M. J., and Phillips, C. A. (2008). Roads as barriers to animal movement in fragmented landscapes. Animal Conservation 11, 288–296.
Roads as barriers to animal movement in fragmented landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Spencer, R. J., Dyke, J. U., and Thompson, M. B. (2017). Critically evaluating best management practices for preventing freshwater turtle extinctions. Conservation Biology , .
Critically evaluating best management practices for preventing freshwater turtle extinctions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Steen, D. A., Aresco, M. J., Beilke, S. G., Compton, B. W., Condon, E. P., Dodd, C. K., Forrester, H, Gibbons, J. W., Greene, J. L., Johnson, G, Langen, T. A., Oldham, M. J., Oxier, D. N., Saumure, R. A., Schueler, F. W., Sleeman, J. M., Smith, L. L., Tucker, J. K., and Gibbs, J. P. (2006). Relative vulnerability of female turtles to road mortality. Animal Conservation 9, 269–273.
Relative vulnerability of female turtles to road mortality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Teixeira, F. Z., Coelho, A. V. P., Esperandio, I. B., and Kindel, A. (2013). Vertebrate road mortality estimates: effects of sampling methods and carcass removal. Biological Conservation 157, 317–323.
Vertebrate road mortality estimates: effects of sampling methods and carcass removal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Teixeira, F. Z., Kindel, A., Hartz, S. M., Mitchell, S., and Fahrig, L. (2017). When road‐kill hotspots do not indicate the best sites for road-kill mitigation. Journal of Applied Ecology 54, 1544–1551.
When road‐kill hotspots do not indicate the best sites for road-kill mitigation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Todd, B. D., Willson, J. D., and Gibbons, J. W. (2010). The global status of reptiles and causes of their decline. In ‘Ecotoxicology of Amphibians and Reptiles’. 2nd edn. (Eds D. W. Sparling, G. Linder, C. A. Bishop, and S. Krest.) pp. 47–67. (CRC Press: New York.)

Trakimas, G., and Sidaravičius, J. (2008). Road mortality threatens small northern populations of the European pond turtle, Emys orbicularis. Acta Herpetologica 3, 161–166.

Wilimovsky, N. J. (1990). Misuses of the term ‘Julian Day’. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 119, 162.
Misuses of the term ‘Julian Day’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wotherspoon, D., and Burgin, S. (2016). Sex and ontogenetic dietary shift in Pogona barbata, the Australian eastern bearded dragon. Australian Journal of Zoology 64, 14–20.
Sex and ontogenetic dietary shift in Pogona barbata, the Australian eastern bearded dragon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zeileis, A., Kleiber, C., and Jackman, S. (2008). Regression models for count data in R. Journal of Statistical Software 27, 1–25.
Regression models for count data in R.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zuur, A. F., Ieno, E. N., and Elphick, C. S. (2010). A protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 1, 3–14.
A protocol for data exploration to avoid common statistical problems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |