Register      Login
Australian Journal of Zoology Australian Journal of Zoology Society
Evolutionary, molecular and comparative zoology
RESEARCH ARTICLE

The influence of evolutionary history and body size on partitioning of habitat resources by mammalian herbivores in south-eastern Australia

Naomi E. Davis A C , Ian R. Gordon B and Graeme Coulson A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia.

B Statistical Consulting Centre, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia.

C Corresponding author. Email: ndavis@unimelb.edu.au

Australian Journal of Zoology 65(4) 226-239 https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO16075
Submitted: 24 October 2016  Accepted: 27 November 2017   Published: 15 January 2018

Abstract

Habitat use is the most common dimension along which sympatric species partition resources to reduce competition. We conducted faecal pellet counts at Wilsons Promontory National Park, Victoria, to examine habitat use by an assemblage of mammalian herbivores with disparate evolutionary histories and varying body size: introduced European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and hog deer (Axis porcinus), and native eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) and common wombat (Vombatus ursinus). Overlap in habitat use was low between four pairs of species, suggesting spatial partitioning of resources to reduce the potential for interspecific competition. More generally, however, overlap in habitat use was high, particularly between native and introduced grazers. These results indicate the potential for competition if resources were limiting and suggest that assemblages of species with independent evolutionary histories have inherently less resource partitioning to facilitate coexistence than assemblages of species with common evolutionary histories. Despite evidence of high overlap in habitat use between native and introduced species at a broad scale, and variation in the competitive ability of species, coexistence was likely facilitated by niche complementarity, including temporal and fine-scale partitioning of spatial resources. There was no relationship between body size and the diversity of habitats used. In contemporary assemblages of native and introduced species, evolutionary history is likely to have a strong influence on resource partitioning.

Additional keywords: common wombat, eastern grey kangaroo, European rabbit, hog deer, swamp wallaby.


References

Abrams, P. A. (1983). The theory of limiting similarity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 14, 359–376.
The theory of limiting similarity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Anderson, T. M., Hopcraft, J. G. C., Eby, S., Ritchie, M., Grace, J. B., and Olff, H. (2010). Landscape-scale analyses suggest both nutrient and antipredator advantages to Serengeti herbivore hotspots. Ecology 91, 1519–1529.
Landscape-scale analyses suggest both nutrient and antipredator advantages to Serengeti herbivore hotspots.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bagchi, S., Goyal, S. P., and Sankar, K. (2003). Niche relationships of an ungulate assemblage in a dry tropical forest. Journal of Mammalogy 84, 981–988.
Niche relationships of an ungulate assemblage in a dry tropical forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bailey, R. E., and Putman, R. J. (1981). Estimation of fallow deer (Dama dama) populations from faecal accumulation. Journal of Applied Ecology 18, 697–702.
Estimation of fallow deer (Dama dama) populations from faecal accumulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baldi, R., Pelliza-Sbriller, A., Elston, D., and Albon, S. (2004). High potential for competition between guanacos and sheep in Patagonia. Journal of Wildlife Management 68, 924–938.
High potential for competition between guanacos and sheep in Patagonia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Banks, P. B., Newsome, A. E., and Dickman, C. R. (2000). Predation by red foxes limits recruitment in populations of eastern grey kangaroos. Austral Ecology 25, 283–291.
Predation by red foxes limits recruitment in populations of eastern grey kangaroos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bell, R. H. V. (1970). The use of the herb layer by grazing ungulates in the Serengeti. In ‘Animal Populations in Relation to Their Food Resources’. (Ed. A. Watson.) pp. 111–123. (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Aberdeen.)

Bell, R. H. V. (1971). A grazing ecosystem in the Serengeti. Scientific American 225, 86–93.
A grazing ecosystem in the Serengeti.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bennett, L. J., English, P. F., and McCain, R. (1940). A study of deer populations by use of pellet-group counts. Journal of Wildlife Management 4, 398–403.
A study of deer populations by use of pellet-group counts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bennett, L. T. (1994). The expansion of Leptospermum laevigatum on the Yanakie Isthmus, Wilsons Promontory, under changes in the burning and grazing regimes. Australian Journal of Botany 42, 555–564.
The expansion of Leptospermum laevigatum on the Yanakie Isthmus, Wilsons Promontory, under changes in the burning and grazing regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bodmer, R. E. (1991). Influence of digestive morphology on resource partitioning in Amazonian ungulates. Oecologia 85, 361–365.
Influence of digestive morphology on resource partitioning in Amazonian ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bosakowski, T., Smith, D. G., and Speiser, R. (1992). Niche overlap of two sympatric-nesting hawks Accipiter spp. in the New Jersey–New York highlands. Ecography 15, 358–372.
Niche overlap of two sympatric-nesting hawks Accipiter spp. in the New Jersey–New York highlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brown, J. H., and Maurer, B. A. (1986). Body size, ecological dominance and Cope’s rule. Nature 324, 248–250.
Body size, ecological dominance and Cope’s rule.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chamaille-Jammes, S., Valeix, M., and Fritz, H. (2007). Managing heterogeneity in elephant distribution: interactions between elephant population density and surface-water availability. Journal of Applied Ecology 44, 625–633.
Managing heterogeneity in elephant distribution: interactions between elephant population density and surface-water availability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Clarke, J. L., Jones, M. E., and Jarman, P. J. (1989). A day in the life of a kangaroo: activities and movements of eastern grey kangaroos Macropus giganteus at Wallaby Creek. In ‘Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos’. (Eds G. Grigg, P. Jarman and I. Hume.) pp. 611–618. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Clarke, P. J. (2002). Experiments on tree and shrub establishment in temperate grassy woodlands: seedling survival. Austral Ecology 27, 606–615.
Experiments on tree and shrub establishment in temperate grassy woodlands: seedling survival.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Clauss, M., Schwarm, A., Ortmann, S., Streich, W. J., and Hummel, J. (2007). A case of non-scaling in mammalian physiology? Body size, digestive capacity, food intake and ingesta passage in mammalian herbivores. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 148, 249–265.
A case of non-scaling in mammalian physiology? Body size, digestive capacity, food intake and ingesta passage in mammalian herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Collins, W. B., and Urness, P. J. (1981). Habitat preferences of mule deer as rated by pellet-group distribution. Journal of Wildlife Management 45, 969–972.
Habitat preferences of mule deer as rated by pellet-group distribution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Connell, J. (1980). Diversity and the coevolution of competitors, or the ghost of competition past. Oikos 35, 131–138.
Diversity and the coevolution of competitors, or the ghost of competition past.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Connell, J. H. (1983). On the prevalence and relative importance of interspecific competition: evidence from field experiments. American Naturalist 122, 661–696.
On the prevalence and relative importance of interspecific competition: evidence from field experiments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cooke, B. D. (1998). Did introduced rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.) displace common wombats, Vombatus ursinus (Shaw) from part of their range of South Australia? In ‘Wombats in Australia’. (Eds R. T. Wells and P. A. Pridmore.) pp. 262–270. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Costello, D. A., Lunt, I. D., and Williams, J. E. (2000). Effects of invasion by the indigenous shrub Acacia sophorae on plant composition of coastal grasslands in south-eastern Australia. Biological Conservation 96, 113–121.
Effects of invasion by the indigenous shrub Acacia sophorae on plant composition of coastal grasslands in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coulson, G. (1990). Habitat separation in the grey kangaroos, Macropus giganteus Shaw and M. fuliginosus (Desmarest) (Marsupialia: Macropodidae), in Grampians National Park, western Victoria. Australian Mammalogy 13, 33–40.

Cripps, J. K., Wilson, M. E., Elgar, M. A., and Coulson, G. (2011). Experimental manipulation of fertility reveals potential lactation costs in a free-ranging marsupial. Biology Letters 7, 859–862.
Experimental manipulation of fertility reveals potential lactation costs in a free-ranging marsupial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cupples, J. B., Crowther, M. S., Story, G., and Letnic, M. (2011). Dietary overlap and prey selectivity among sympatric carnivores: could dingoes suppress foxes through competition for prey? Journal of Mammalogy 92, 590–600.
Dietary overlap and prey selectivity among sympatric carnivores: could dingoes suppress foxes through competition for prey?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davis, N. E. (2010). Resource partitioning among five sympatric mammalian herbivores on Yanakie Isthmus, south-eastern Australia. Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Melbourne.

Davis, N. E., and Coulson, G. (2016). Habitat-specific faecal pellet decay rates for five mammalian herbivores in south-eastern Australia. Australian Mammalogy 38, 105–116.
Habitat-specific faecal pellet decay rates for five mammalian herbivores in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davis, N. E., Coulson, G., and Forsyth, D. M. (2008). Diets of native and introduced mammalian herbivores in shrub-encroached grassy woodland, south-eastern Australia. Wildlife Research 35, 684–694.
Diets of native and introduced mammalian herbivores in shrub-encroached grassy woodland, south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davis, N. E., Bennett, A., Forsyth, D. M., Bowman, D. M. J. S., Lefroy, E. C., Wood, S. W., Woolnough, A. P., West, P., Hampton, J. O., and Johnson, C. N. (2016a). A systematic review of the impacts and management of introduced deer (Family: Cervidae) in Australia. Wildlife Research 43, 515–532.
A systematic review of the impacts and management of introduced deer (Family: Cervidae) in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davis, N. E., Di Stefano, J., Coulson, G., Whelan, J., and Wright, J. (2016b). Vegetation management influences habitat use by mammalian herbivores in shrub-encroached grassy woodland. Wildlife Research 43, 438–447.
Vegetation management influences habitat use by mammalian herbivores in shrub-encroached grassy woodland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Denny, M. J. S., and Dawson, T. J. (1975). Comparative metabolism of tritiated water by macropodid marsupials. The American Journal of Physiology 228, 1794–1795.
| 1:STN:280:DyaE2M3it1Ortg%3D%3D&md5=454e3175bc6b75ae8bdd0f3144b20ffdCAS |
| 1:STN:280:DyaE2M3it1Ortg%3D%3D&md5=454e3175bc6b75ae8bdd0f3144b20ffdCAS |

Dhungel, S. K. (1985). Defecation rate of hog deer in captivity. Journal of Wildlife Management 49, 925–926.
Defecation rate of hog deer in captivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Di Stefano, J., York, A., Swan, M., Greenfield, A., and Coulson, G. (2009). Habitat selection by the swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) in relation to diel period, food and shelter. Austral Ecology 34, 143–155.
Habitat selection by the swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) in relation to diel period, food and shelter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Di Stefano, J., Coulson, G., Greenfield, A., and Swan, M. (2011). Resource heterogeneity influences home range area in the swamp wallaby Wallabia bicolor. Ecography 34, 469–479.
Resource heterogeneity influences home range area in the swamp wallaby Wallabia bicolor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dinerstein, E. (1979). An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali–Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Part II: Habitat/animal interactions. Biological Conservation 16, 265–300.
An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali–Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Part II: Habitat/animal interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Doherty, T. S., Davis, R. A., van Etten, E. J. B., Algar, D., Collier, N., Dickman, C. R., Edwards, G., Masters, P., Palmer, R., and Robinson, S. (2015). A continental-scale analysis of feral cat diet in Australia. Journal of Biogeography 42, 964–975.
A continental-scale analysis of feral cat diet in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

du Toit, J. T., and Owen-Smith, N. (1989). Body size, population metabolism, and habitat specialization among large African herbivores. American Naturalist 133, 736–740.
Body size, population metabolism, and habitat specialization among large African herbivores.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Evans, M. C., Macgregor, C., and Jarman, P. J. (2006). Diet and feeding selectivity of common wombats. Wildlife Research 33, 321–330.
Diet and feeding selectivity of common wombats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fa, J. E., Sharples, C. M., and Bell, D. J. (1999). Habitat correlates of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) distribution after the spread of RVHD in Cadiz Province, Spain. Journal of Zoology 249, 83–96.
Habitat correlates of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) distribution after the spread of RVHD in Cadiz Province, Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Floyd, R. B. (1980). Density of Wallabia bicolor (Desmarest) (Marsupialia: Macropodidae) in eucalypt plantations of different ages. Australian Wildlife Research 7, 333–337.
Density of Wallabia bicolor (Desmarest) (Marsupialia: Macropodidae) in eucalypt plantations of different ages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Focardi, S, Aragno, P, Montanaro, P, and Riga, F (2006). Inter-specific competition from fallow deer Dama dama reduces habitat quality for the Italian roe deer Capreolus capreolus italicus. Ecography 29, 407–417.

Forsyth, D. M., Duncan, R. P., Bomford, M., and Moore, G. (2004). Climatic suitability, life-history traits, introduction effort, and the establishment and spread of introduced mammals in Australia. Conservation Biology 18, 557–569.
Climatic suitability, life-history traits, introduction effort, and the establishment and spread of introduced mammals in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Forsyth, D. M., Barker, R. J., Morriss, G., and Scroggie, M. P. (2007). Modeling the relationship between fecal pellet indices and deer density. Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 964–970.
Modeling the relationship between fecal pellet indices and deer density.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Freeland, W. J. (1990). Large herbivorous mammals: exotic species in northern Australia. Journal of Biogeography 17, 445–449.
Large herbivorous mammals: exotic species in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fritz, H., de Garine-Wichatitsky, M., and Letessier, G. (1996). Habitat use by sympatric wild and domestic herbivores in an African savanna woodland: the influence of cattle spatial behaviour. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 589–598.
Habitat use by sympatric wild and domestic herbivores in an African savanna woodland: the influence of cattle spatial behaviour.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fuentes, E., and Olsen, J. (2015). Observations of the killing of large macropods by wedge-tailed eagles Aquila audax. Australian Field Ornithology 32, 160–166.

Garnick, S., Di Stefano, J., Elgar, M. A., and Coulson, G. (2014). Inter- and intraspecific effects of body size on habitat use among sexually-dimorphic macropodids. Oikos 123, 984–992.
Inter- and intraspecific effects of body size on habitat use among sexually-dimorphic macropodids.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Garnick, S., Di Stefano, J., Elgar, M. A., and Coulson, G. (2016). Ecological specialisation in habitat selection within a macropodid herbivore guild. Oecologia 180, 823–832.
Ecological specialisation in habitat selection within a macropodid herbivore guild.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Garshelis, D. L. (2000). Delusions in habitat evaluation: measuring use, selection, and importance. In ‘Research Techniques in Animal Ecology; Controversies and Consequences’. (Eds L. Boitani and T. K. Fuller.) pp. 111–164. (Columbia University Press: New York.)

Gause, G. F. (1934). ‘The Struggle for Existence.’ (Williams and Wilkins: Baltimore.)

Godvik, I. M. R., Loe, L. E., Vik, J. O., Veiberg, V., and Langvatn, R. (2009). Temporal scales, trade-offs, and functional responses in red deer habitat selection. Ecology 90, 699–710.
Temporal scales, trade-offs, and functional responses in red deer habitat selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gwynne, M. D., and Bell, R. H. (1968). Selection of vegetation components by grazing ungulates in the Serengeti National Park. Nature 220, 390–393.
Selection of vegetation components by grazing ungulates in the Serengeti National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaF1M%2FhsVKqtA%3D%3D&md5=b19bc27491d4ae130adc3335a0b2388fCAS | 1:STN:280:DyaF1M%2FhsVKqtA%3D%3D&md5=b19bc27491d4ae130adc3335a0b2388fCAS |

Hannan, M. J., and Whelan, J. (1989). Deer and habitat relations in managed forests. In ‘Mammals as Pests’. (Ed. R. J. Putman.) pp. 116–127. (Chapman and Hall: New York.)

Hickling, G. J. (1986). Red deer population surveys in the Harper–Avoca catchment (1956–1983). Forest Research Institute Bulletin 107, 1–10.

Hilborn, R., and Mangel, M. (1997). ‘The Ecological Detective: Confronting Models with Data.’ (Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.)

Hill, G. J. E. (1978). Preliminary assessment of defecation patterns for the eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). Australian Zoologist 19, 291–300.

Hill, G. J. E. (1981a). Distribution of grey kangaroos in south, inland Queensland. Australian Rangeland Journal 3, 58–66.
Distribution of grey kangaroos in south, inland Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hill, G. J. E. (1981b). A study of the habitat preferences in the grey kangaroo. Australian Wildlife Research 8, 245–254.
A study of the habitat preferences in the grey kangaroo.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hopcraft, J. G. C., Olff, H., and Sinclair, A. R. E. (2010). Herbivores, resources and risks: alternating regulation along primary environmental gradients in savannas. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25, 119–128.
Herbivores, resources and risks: alternating regulation along primary environmental gradients in savannas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hume, I. D. (1999). ‘Marsupial Nutrition.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Illius, A. W., and Gordon, I. J. (1987). The allometry of food intake in grazing ruminants. Journal of Animal Ecology 56, 989–999.
The allometry of food intake in grazing ruminants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jarman, P. J. (1972). Seasonal distribution of the large mammal populations in the unflooded middle Zambezi valley. Journal of Applied Ecology 9, 283–299.
Seasonal distribution of the large mammal populations in the unflooded middle Zambezi valley.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jarman, P. J. (1974). The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 48, 215–267.
The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jarman, P. J., and Phillips, C. M. (1989). Diets in a community of macropod species. In ‘Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos’. (Eds G. Grigg, P. Jarman, and I. Hume.) pp. 139–149. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Jarman, P. J., and Sinclair, A. R. E. (1979). Feeding strategy and the pattern of resource partitioning in ungulates. In ‘Serengeti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem’. (Eds A. R. E. Sinclair and N. Norton-Griffiths.) pp. 130–163. (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.)

Johnson, C. N. (1998). The evolutionary ecology of wombats. In ‘Wombats’. (Eds R. T. Wells and P. A. Pridmore.) pp. 34–41. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Johnson, C. N., Jarman, P. J., and Southwell, C. J. (1987). Macropod studies at Wallaby Creek. V. Patterns of defaecation by eastern grey kangaroos and red-necked wallabies. Australian Wildlife Research 14, 133–138.
Macropod studies at Wallaby Creek. V. Patterns of defaecation by eastern grey kangaroos and red-necked wallabies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson, D. H. (1980). The comparison of usage and availability measurements for evaluating resource preference. Ecology 61, 65–71.
The comparison of usage and availability measurements for evaluating resource preference.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Judd, T. S. (1990). The ecology and water relations of the invasive shrubs, Kunzea ambigua (Sm.) Druce, Kunzea ericoides (A. Rich) J. Thompson and Leptospermum laevigatum (J. Gaertn) F. Muell. Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Melbourne.

Komers, P. E. (1997). Behavioural plasticity in variable environments. Canadian Journal of Zoology 75, 161–169.
Behavioural plasticity in variable environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Krebs, C. J. (1999). ‘Ecological Methodology.’ 2nd edn. (Addison-Welsey Educational Publishers Inc.: California.)

Krebs, C. J., Boonstra, R., Nams, V., O’Donoghue, M., Hodges, K. E., and Boutin, S. (2001). Estimating snowshoe hare population density from pellet plots: a further evaluation. Canadian Journal of Zoology 79, 1–4.
Estimating snowshoe hare population density from pellet plots: a further evaluation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kuiters, A. T., Bruinderink, G. W. T. A. G., and Lammertsma, D. R. (2005). Facilitative and competitive interactions between sympatric cattle, red deer and wild boar in Dutch woodland pastures. Acta Theriologica 50, 241–252.
Facilitative and competitive interactions between sympatric cattle, red deer and wild boar in Dutch woodland pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Laing, S. E., Buckland, S. T., Burn, R. W., Lambie, D., and Amphlett, A. (2003). Dung and nest surveys: estimating decay rates. Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 1102–1111.
Dung and nest surveys: estimating decay rates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lawlor, L. R., and Maynard Smith, J (1976). The coevolution and stability of competing species. American Naturalist 110, 79–99.

Leigh, J. (1989). Effects of rabbit and kangaroo grazing on two semi-arid grassland communities in central-western New South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany 37, 375–396.
Effects of rabbit and kangaroo grazing on two semi-arid grassland communities in central-western New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lunney, D., and O’Connell, M. (1988). Habitat selection by the swamp wallaby, Wallabia bicolor, the red-necked wallaby, Macropus rufogriseus, and the common wombat, Vombatus ursinus, in logged burnt, forest near Bega, New South Wales. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 695–706.
Habitat selection by the swamp wallaby, Wallabia bicolor, the red-necked wallaby, Macropus rufogriseus, and the common wombat, Vombatus ursinus, in logged burnt, forest near Bega, New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

MacArthur, R. H., and Levins, R. (1967). The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species. American Naturalist 101, 377–385.
The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Madhusudan, M. D. (2004). Recovery of wild large herbivores following livestock decline in a tropical Indian wildlife reserve. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 858–869.
Recovery of wild large herbivores following livestock decline in a tropical Indian wildlife reserve.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Manly, B. F. J., McDonald, L. L., and Thomas, D. L. (2002). ‘Resource Selection by Animals: Statistical Design and Analysis for Field Studies.’ 2nd edn. (Chapman & Hall: London.)

May, R. M., and MacArthur, R. H. (1972). Niche overlap as a function of environmental variability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 69, 1109–1113.
Niche overlap as a function of environmental variability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaE383ht1Kitg%3D%3D&md5=ad664f3b9ad5a00efc0bce31e8215382CAS | 1:STN:280:DyaE383ht1Kitg%3D%3D&md5=ad664f3b9ad5a00efc0bce31e8215382CAS |

Mayle, B. A., Peace, A. J., and Gill, R. M. A. (1999). ‘How Many Deer? A Field Guide to Estimating Deer Population Size.’ (Forestry Commission: Edinburgh.)

Mayze, R. J., and Moore, G. I. (1990). ‘The Hog Deer.’ (The Australian Deer Research Foundation Ltd: Melbourne.)

McIlroy, J. C. (1995). Common wombat Vombatus ursinus. In ‘The Mammals of Australia’. (Ed. R. Strahan.) pp. 204–205. (Reed Books: Sydney.)

Menkhorst, P., and Seebeck, J. (1998). A list of native mammals of Wilsons Promontory National Park. Victorian Naturalist 115, 264–265.

Merchant, J. C. (2008). Swamp wallaby, Wallabia bicolor. In ‘The Mammals of Australia’. 3rd edn. (Eds S. Van Dyck and R. Strahan.) pp. 404–405. (Reed New Holland: Sydney.)

Mishra, C., van Wieren, S. E., Heitkonig, I. M. A., and Prins, H. H. T. (2002). A theoretical analysis of competitive exclusion in a trans-Himalayan large-herbivore assemblage. Animal Conservation 5, 251–258.
A theoretical analysis of competitive exclusion in a trans-Himalayan large-herbivore assemblage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Molnar, C. D., Fletcher, D., and Parsons, R. F. (1989). Relationships between heath and Leptospermum laevigatum scrub at Sandringham, Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 101, 77–87.

Moore, B., Coulson, G., and Way, S. (2002). Habitat selection by adult female eastern grey kangaroos. Wildlife Research 29, 439–445.
Habitat selection by adult female eastern grey kangaroos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moreno, S., Villafuerte, R., and Delibes, M. (1996). Cover is safe during the day but dangerous at night: the use of vegetation by European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) in Portugal. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74, 1656–1660.
Cover is safe during the day but dangerous at night: the use of vegetation by European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) in Portugal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Munday, P. L., Jones, G. P., and Caley, M. J. (2001). Interspecific competition and coexistence in a guild of coral-dwelling fishes. Ecology 82, 2177–2189.
Interspecific competition and coexistence in a guild of coral-dwelling fishes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

National Registration Authority For Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (2002). The NRA review of pindone. Unpublished report. Canberra.

Nelson, P. C., and Hickling, G. J. (1994). Pindone for rabbit control: efficacy, residues and cost. In ‘Proceedings of the 16th Vertebrate Pest Conference 1994’. (Eds W. S. Halverson and A. C. Crabb.) pp. 217–222. (University of California: Davis, CA.)

Odden, M., Wegge, P., and Storaas, T. (2005). Hog deer Axis porcinus need threatened tallgrass floodplains: a study of habitat selection in lowland Nepal. Animal Conservation 8, 99–104.
Hog deer Axis porcinus need threatened tallgrass floodplains: a study of habitat selection in lowland Nepal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Oliver, A. J., Wheeler, S. H., and Gooding, C. D. (1982). Field evaluation of 1080 and pindone oat bait, and possible decline in effectiveness of poison baiting for the control of the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus. Australian Wildlife Research 9, 125–134.
Field evaluation of 1080 and pindone oat bait, and possible decline in effectiveness of poison baiting for the control of the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Peters, R. H., and Raelson, J. V. (1984). Relations between individual size and mammalian population density. American Naturalist 124, 498–517.
Relations between individual size and mammalian population density.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pianka, E. R. (1976). Competition and niche theory. In ‘Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications’. (Ed. R. M. May.) pp. 114–141. (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford.)

Prins, H. H. T. (2000). Competition between wildlife and livestock in Africa. In ‘Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use’. (Eds H. H. T. Prins, J. G. Grootenhuis and T. T. Dolan.) pp. 51–80. (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Boston, MA.)

Ramsey, D. S. L., and Engeman, R. M. (1994). Patterns of grazing on coastal dune systems by insular populations of two species of macropod. Wildlife Research 21, 107–114.
Patterns of grazing on coastal dune systems by insular populations of two species of macropod.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Robertshaw, J. D., and Harden, R. H. (1989). Predation on Macropodoidea: a review. In ‘Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos’. (Ed. G. Grigg, P. Jarman, and I. Hume.) pp. 735–749. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Robinson, M. H., Wheeler, S. H., and Oliver, A. J. (1990). A case study of the use of pindone anticoagulant poison for rabbit control in an urban area. Technical Series No. 7. Agriculture Protection Board, WA.

Roger, E., Laffan, S. W., and Ramp, D. (2007). Habitat selection by the common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) in disturbed environments: implications for the conservation of a ‘common’ species. Biological Conservation 137, 437–449.
Habitat selection by the common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) in disturbed environments: implications for the conservation of a ‘common’ species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rosenzweig, M. L. (1981). A theory of habitat selection. Ecology 62, 327–335.
A theory of habitat selection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rosenzweig, M. (1991). Habitat selection and population interactions: the search for mechanism. American Naturalist 137, S5–S28.
Habitat selection and population interactions: the search for mechanism.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sakai, A. K., Allendorf, F. W., Holt, J. S., Lodge, D. M., Molofsky, J., With, K. A., Baughman, S., Cabin, R. J., Cohen, J. E., Ellstrand, N. C., McCauley, D. E., O’Neil, P., Parker, I. M., Thompson, J. N., and Weller, S. G. (2001). The population biology of invasive species. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32, 305–332.
The population biology of invasive species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sanson, G. D. (1978). The evolution and significance of mastication in the Macropodidae. Australian Mammalogy 2, 23–28.

Schmidt, B., Coulson, G., and Di Stefano, J. (2010). Habitat partitioning among sympatric grey kangaroos and swamp wallabies in box–ironbark remnants. In ‘Macropods: The Biology of Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos’. (Eds G. Coulson and M. Eldridge.) pp. 219–230. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Schoener, T. W. (1974). Resource partitioning in ecological communities. Science 185, 27–39.
Resource partitioning in ecological communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cvgslehtQ%3D%3D&md5=c7231024e0691f367704a3f0fe4eb2fcCAS | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cvgslehtQ%3D%3D&md5=c7231024e0691f367704a3f0fe4eb2fcCAS |

Schoener, T. W. (1983). Field experiments on interspecific competition. American Naturalist 122, 240–285.
Field experiments on interspecific competition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Schoener, T. W. (1986). Resource partitioning. In ‘Community Ecology. Patterns and Process’. (Eds J. Kikkawa and D. J. Anderson.) pp. 91–126. (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Palo Alto, CA.)

Schwartz, C. C., and Ellis, J. E. (1981). Feeding ecology and niche separation in some native and domestic ungulates on the shortgrass pairie. Journal of Applied Ecology 18, 343–353.
Feeding ecology and niche separation in some native and domestic ungulates on the shortgrass pairie.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Shannon, G., Mackey, R. L., and Slotow, R. (2013). Diet selection and dietary switch of a large sexually dimorphic herbivore. Acta Oecologica 46, 48–55.
Diet selection and dietary switch of a large sexually dimorphic herbivore.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sih, A. (1993). Effects of ecological interactions on forager diets: competition, predation risk, parasitism and prey behaviour. In ‘Diet Selection: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Foraging Behaviour’. (Ed. R. N. Hughes.) pp. 182–211. (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford.)

Skarpe, C., Moe, S. R., Wallgren, M., and Stokke, S. (2014). Elephants and the grazing and browsing guilds. In ‘Elephants and Savanna Woodland Ecosystems: A Study From Chobe National Park, Botswana’. (Eds C. Skarpe, J. du Toit and S. R. Moe.) pp. 207–228. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester, UK.)

Smith, A. D. (1964). Defecation rates of mule deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 28, 435–444.
Defecation rates of mule deer.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Smith, E. P. (1982). Niche breadth, resource availability, and inference. Ecology 63, 1675–1681.
Niche breadth, resource availability, and inference.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Southwell, C. (1989). Techniques for monitoring the abundance of kangaroo and wallaby populations. In ‘Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos’. (Eds G. Grigg, P. Jarman and I. Hume.) pp. 659–693. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Southwell, C. J., Cairns, S. C., Pople, A. R., and Delaney, R. (1999). Gradient analysis of macropod distribution in open forest and woodland of eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 24, 132–143.
Gradient analysis of macropod distribution in open forest and woodland of eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stephens, D. W., and Krebs, J. R. (1986). ‘Foraging Theory.’ (Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.)

Stewart, K. M., Bowyer, R. T., Kie, J. G., Cimon, N. J., and Johnson, B. K. (2002). Temporospatial distributions of elk, mule deer, and cattle: resource partitioning and competitive displacement. Journal of Mammalogy 83, 229–244.
Temporospatial distributions of elk, mule deer, and cattle: resource partitioning and competitive displacement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Svärdson, G. (1949). Competition and habitat selection in birds. Oikos 1, 157–174.
Competition and habitat selection in birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Taylor, R. (1985). Effects of pasture improvement on the nutrition of eastern grey kangaroos and wallaroos. Journal of Applied Ecology 22, 717–725.
Effects of pasture improvement on the nutrition of eastern grey kangaroos and wallaroos.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Triggs, B. (1996). ‘The Wombat: Common Wombats in Australia.’ 2nd edn. (NSW University Press: Sydney.)

Triggs, B. (2003). ‘Tracks, Scats and Other Traces; a Field Guide to Australian Mammals.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)

Troy, S., and Coulson, G. (1993). Home range of the swamp wallaby, Wallabia bicolor. Wildlife Research 20, 571–577.
Home range of the swamp wallaby, Wallabia bicolor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Van Beest, F. M., Mysterud, A., Loe, L. E., and Milner, J. M. (2010). Forage quantity, quality and depletion as scale-dependent mechanisms driving habitat selection of a large browsing herbivore. Journal of Animal Ecology 79, 910–922.

Voeten, M. M., and Prins, H. H. T. (1999). Resource partitioning between sympatric wild and domestic herbivores in the Tarangire region of Tanzania. Oecologia 120, 287–294.
Resource partitioning between sympatric wild and domestic herbivores in the Tarangire region of Tanzania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Walters, C. J., and Holling, C. S. (1990). Large-scale management experiments and learning by doing. Ecology 71, 2060–2068.
Large-scale management experiments and learning by doing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wegge, P., Shrestha, A. K., and Moe, S. R. (2006). Dry season diets of sympatric ungulates in lowland Nepal: competition and facilitation in alluvial tall grasslands. Ecological Research 21, 698–706.
Dry season diets of sympatric ungulates in lowland Nepal: competition and facilitation in alluvial tall grasslands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Whitfield, J. (2002). Neutrality versus the niche. Nature 417, 480–481.
Neutrality versus the niche.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XktVehsb0%3D&md5=a80275965573de2302512c55f9c97e5cCAS | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XktVehsb0%3D&md5=a80275965573de2302512c55f9c97e5cCAS |

Williams, C. K., and Myers, K. (2008). Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus. In ‘The Mammals of Australia’. 3rd edn. (Eds S. Van Dyck and R. Strahan.) pp. 745–747. (Reed New Holland: Sydney.)

Wood, D. H. (1988). Estimating rabbit density by counting dung pellets. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 665–671.
Estimating rabbit density by counting dung pellets.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Young, K. A. (2004). Asymmetric competition, habitat selection, and niche overlap in juvenile salmonids. Ecology 85, 134–149.
Asymmetric competition, habitat selection, and niche overlap in juvenile salmonids.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |