Taxonomy and systematics of the Australasian gum nut orb-weaving spider genus Carepalxis (Araneae, Araneidae)

Holotype. Female of Carepalxis montifera, Rockhampton (23°22′S, 150°30′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A0001729, examined (photos).

AUSTRALIA: New South Wales: 2 females, Kinchega National Park, 32°32′S, 142°17′E, 15 May 1969, AM KS109267; 1 female, Lane Paddock, ‘Brotherony’, via Condolobin, 33°06′S, 146°39′E, 14 March 2002, AM KS91268. Queensland: 1 female, Hemmant, 27°28′S, 153°03′E, QM W1654; 2 females (originally syntypes of C. tuberculata), Rockhampton, 23°22′S,150°30′E, ZMH-A00016656; 1 female, Norman River, 20 km SSE Normanton, 17°51′S, 141°08′E, 08 January 1993, NMV K-13315. South Australia: 1 female, Coopers Creek, 28°23′S, 137°41′E, SAM NN30815; 2 females, 1 juvenile, Eden Valley, 34°39′S, 139°06′E, SAM NN30817–30819; 2 females, Lake Goolangarie (Lake Goyder), 27°01′S, 140°10′E, 13 December 2000, SAM NN30837–NN30838. Western Australia: 1 female, Robe River near Northwestern Highway, 21°39′S, 115°57′E, 13 July 2000, WAM T41817; 2 females, 1 juvenile, Sabina River, 33°23′S, 115°14′E, 12 January 1984, WAM T37203–5; 1 female, Sabina River, 33°23′S, 115°14′E, WAM T37207; 1 female, same data as previous, WAM T37234; 11 females, 3 juveniles, same data as previous, WAM T37209–22.

Females of Carepalxis montifera are most similar to those of C. tuberculata as both species share an epigyne with rounded lateral lobes and a scape reaching over the epigyne area by ~1/4 of the scape’s length (Fig. 5d, e, 6c, d, 7d, 29c, d, 32a–c), differing for example from C. kolla sp. nov. whose scape surpasses the epigyne area by 1/5 of the scape’s length (Fig. 19c). However, C. montifera can be identified by an abdomen having elevated humps dorsally and ventrally bearing a wide white patch (Fig. 5a–c) v. an abdomen dorsally without conspicuous humps and centrally with two white spots in C. tuberculata (Fig. 29a, b); and an epigyne scape that is less elevated and anteriorly wider exposing less of the atrium and tapering to its tip (v. approximately the same width from base to tip in C. tuberculata) (Fig. 5d, e, 6c, d, 7d, 22c, d, 25a–c). Male unknown.

Total length females 5.4–8.4 (n = 5). Humeral humps can vary in size and shape, from two large turrets (Fig. 5a, b, 6a) to two elongated and slender flaps (Fig. 7a–c). Epigyne scape width is also variable medially, with a variable degree of exposure of the atrium (e.g. Fig. 8c, 7d, e, 32c).

The holotype of C. montifera is a female from Rockhampton (Queensland). It has the more commonly found elevated turret-like dorsal humps and the scape of the epigyne is broken off, even though still matching well with the specimen we used in our redescription of the species (SAM NN30815) (Fig. 5a–f, 6a, b). However, as described in the variation section above, the width of the epigyne scape can vary, and this can be amplified by the position of the scape during examination. Viewed from a more apical angle, with the scape slightly more detached from the atrium, the viewer can get the illusion of a different shape, with the scape appearing not to be elevated, and occupying most of the atrium width, if not completely covering it. This situation was initially observed in one of the syntypes of C. tuberculata, also from Rockhampton, from which we received photos (ZMH-A00016656) (Fig. 6c–e). On Fig. 6d (lateral view) one can clearly see that the scape is elevated (or protruding) at its base, whereas on Fig. 6c (apico-ventral view), as the photo was taken more apically, the scape elevation is barely visible, causing the illusion that the scape is wider than it really is. After observing several specimens of C. montifera, such as the one with long elongated humeral humps (ventral view, Fig. 7c v. apico-ventral view, Fig. 7d), we judged that by the variation in scape angle mentioned above, but also by the shape of the terminal portion of the posterior plate after the transverse slits, which matches with the holotype of the genus type species (Fig. 6b, e), the specific syntype ZMH-A00016656 of C. tuberculata was initially misidentified and is, in fact, C. montifera. By contrast, the second syntype specimen of C. tuberculata from the same vial from Rockhampton (ZMH-A00016656) (Fig. 32c) has the typical tapering of the scape present in C. montifera in comparison to C. tuberculata and was also originally misidentified and included in the type series of the latter species.

According to the original labels where the collection date was available, specimens of C. montifera were found between December and March, with additional four specimens collected in May, and one in July. Therefore, the species is considered as mainly summer to early autumn mature, whereas for the northern-most regions of Australia, the only specimen with collection date was found during the wet season in January. No habitat data were given on the original labels. Some specimens were collected in nests of mud wasps (genus Pison Spinola, 1808).

The species is widely distributed in Australia, with records from New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia (Fig. 8). Occurrence in the Northern Territory is likely.

Holotype. Female of Carepalxis beelzebub, Wangaratta (36°21′S, 146°16′E, Victoria, AUSTRALIA), RMNH.ARA.5784, examined (photos). Syntype male and female of Acroaspis tuberculifera Thorell, 1881, Somerset (Cape York) (10°41′28.2″S, 142°31′56.5″E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), year 1875, LM D’Albertis coll., MSNG, examined (photos). Holotype female of Carepalxis suberosa Thorell, 1881, Yule Island (8°49′S, 146°32′E, PAPUA NEW GUINEA), year 1875, LM D’Albertis coll., MSNG, examined (photos). Holotype female of Carepalxis tricuspidata Chrysanthus, 1961, Merauke (8°29′S, 140°23′E, West Papua, INDONESIA), c. 1956–1957, Br. Monulf coll., RMNH.ARA.971, not examined.

AUSTRALIA: 1 female, no data, QM. Queensland: 1 female, Atherton Plateau, Rose Gums Wilderness Retreat, 12.4 km at 059°ENE Malanda, 17°18′S, 145°42′E, 15–16 March 2006, NHMD; 1 male, 1 juvenile, Burster Creek, 10°56′S, 142°20′E, QM S83476; 1 male, Camira, 27°38′S 152°55′E, QM S19591; 1 male, same locality as previous, 01 October 1990, QM S17806; 2 females, same locality as previous, 04 December 1987, QM S2465; 2 females, Burra, via Gympie, 26°04′S, 152°35′E, 04 September 1993, QM S124029; 4 females, 1 juvenile, Inala, Brisbane, 27°36′S, 152°58′E, 16 February 1992, QM S124030; 1 male, Kroombit Tops, Northern Escarpment, 24°22′S, 151°01′E, QM S121042; 1 female, Mt Moffat, 25°01′S, 147°57′E, QM S121043; 1 female, Pheasant Creek, Rockhampton area, 23°50′S, 150°07′E, 04 January 1999, QM S124032. South Australia: 1 female, Blakiston, 35°07′S, 138°50′E, SAM NN30834. Tasmania: 1 female, north Tasmania, no exact locality, 19 March 1929, AM KS.29130; 1 female, no exact locality, AM KS.29129; 1 male, Strahan, 42°09′S, 145°19′E, 08 December 1973, AM KS.32866. Victoria: 4 females, 2 juveniles, no exact locality, NMV K-13319; 2 males, 1 female, Yarra Glen, 37°39′S, 145°22′E, QM S121046. Western Australia: 2 females, 20 km S of Ravensthorpe, 33°41′S, 119°53′E, 02 January 1994, WAM T31075–6; 1 male, East Nugadong Nature Reserve, 30°11′S, 116°52′E, WAM T75382; 1 female, Grass Patch, 33°08′S, 121°25′E, 24 December 1992, WAM T37191.

Females of C. beelzebub are most similar to those of C. bilobata and C. megalostylus sp. nov. as all three species share epigyne in which the lateral lobes have acute projections and scape reaching posteriorly past the genital area by at least 1/2 of the scape’s length (Fig. 9c, d, 14c, d, 15b, 16b, d, 21c, d). Carepalxis beelzebub differs from these other two species by a scape base that is not elevated with the scape’s tip reaching past the genital area by only approximately the atrium length (Fig. 9c, d). Males of C. beelzebub are most similar to those of C. tholos sp. nov., both differing from C. tuberculata by leg tibia II having shorter pair of macrosetae that do not reach the metatarsus. In addition, the pedipalp median apophysis is less elongated and without an apical excavation, and the terminal apophysis is less inflated (Fig. 3a–h, 10c, d, 24c, d, 30c, d). Carepalxis beelzebub males differ from those of C. tholos sp. nov. by an inconspicuous stump (small projection) on the outer margin of the median apophysis; the terminal apophysis is not strongly curved basally with a wider triangular tip; and the embolus is medially thinner with an enlarged tip basally projected (Fig. 10c, d, 27c, d).

Total length females 6.5–8.9 (n = 5). Total length males 3.9–4.3 (n = 4). The size of the abdominal tubercles varies slightly among studied specimens. Also, the thickness of the base of the scape of females varied somewhat among the specimens (e.g. Fig. 9c v. 12a v. 12b). One female had the scape broken off (QM S124032).

The genitalia of males and females of C. beelzebub were compared to the genitalia of three similar looking species. The variation among all type material examined or assessed by published descriptions and illustrations (see above at the taxonomic list) falls within the variation of specimens here considered to belong to C. beelzebub, including the drawings of the female epigyne of Carepalxis tricuspidata Chrysanthus, 1961 (Chrysanthus 1961, fig. 50–53, not examined) and the photos we received of the female holotype epigyne of Carepalxis suberosa Thorell, 1881 (Fig. 12b), and the female epigyne and male pedipalp of Acroaspis tuberculifera (Thorell, 1881) (Fig. 12a, b). Therefore, taking into account these morphological similarities, we propose the following synonymies: Carepalxis beelzebub = C. suberosa syn. nov. = C. tuberculifera comb. nov. & syn. nov. = C. tricuspidata Chrysanthus, 1961 syn. nov.

According to the original labels, specimens of C. beelzebub were collected in September, October, December, January, February and March. Therefore, the species is considered as mainly spring and summer mature for most of Australia, whereas in Queensland and New Guinea, the species was collected during the wet season. No habitat data were given on any labels. One sample was collected in nests of mud wasps (genus Pison).

Carepalxis beelzebub has been found in five Australian states: Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia, but based on these distribution records it is likely to occur more widely. It has also been found in West Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea (Fig. 13).

Fig. 12.

Carepalxis beelzebub (van Hasselt, 1873), junior synonyms. (a) Carepalxis tuberculifera (Thorell, 1881) (MSNG), female syntype, epigyne ventral view; (b) Carepalxis suberosa Thorell, 1881 (MSNG), female holotype, epigyne ventral view.

Fig. 13.

Distribution records of Carepalxis beelzebub (van Hasselt, 1873).

Fig. 14.

Carepalxis bilobata Keyserling, 1886, female (AM KS.76355). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) epigyne, ventral view; (d) epigyne, lateral view; (e) epigyne, posterior view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm.

Fig. 15.

Carepalxis bilobata Keyserling, 1886, female lectotype (ZMH-A0001734). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) epigyne, ventral view. Scale bar: (b) 0.1 mm.

Fig. 16.

Carepalxis bilobata Keyserling, 1886, female variations. (a) Dorsal habitus (SAM NN30825); (b) epigyne ventral view; (c) dorsal habitus (AM KS.59248); (d) epigyne ventral view. Scale bar: (a, c) 2 mm; (b, d) 0.2 mm.

2 females and 1 juvenile syntypes of Carepalxis bilobata from Peak Downs (22°56′S 148°05′, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A0001734, examined (photos).

AUSTRALIA: New South Wales: 1 female, Cocoparra National Park, The Woolshed Flat campsite, 34°04′S, 146°13′E, 15 March 2002, AM KS.76355; 1 female, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, 33°38′S 151°08′E, AM KS.59248. Queensland: 2 females, Eidsvold, 25°22′S, 151°07′E, SAM NN30825, NN30826. Victoria: 1 female, La Trobe University Flora Hill, 36°47′S, 144°18′E, 16 September 1996, CVIC 1227.

Females of C. bilobata share with C. beelzebub and C. megalostylus sp. nov. the projected lateral lobes of the epigyne and the scape tip reaching posteriorly past the epigyne area by at least half of scape’s length (Fig. 9c, d, 14c, d, 15b, 16b, d, 21c, d). Carepalxis bilobata and C. megalostylus sp. nov. can be differentiated from C. beelzebub by a more elongated scape that has an elevated base, reaching posteriorly past the epigyne area by more than its width (Fig. 14c, d, 15b, 16b, d, 21c, d). Carepalxis bilobata differs from C. megalostylus sp. nov. by the epigyne atrium not being almost completely covered by the scape and the much wider baso-lateral flaps (Fig. 14c, e, 15b, 16b, d). Males unknown.

Total length females 6.5–8.9 (n = 3). Carapace and legs uniformly dark brown (Fig. 16c). Abdominal humeral humps vary in size, forming two lobes anteriorly (Fig. 15a) or being inconspicuous (Fig. 16c), whereas the abdominal tubercles can be very conspicuous and pointed as in the redescription of the species (Fig. 14a), or not noticeable (Fig. 15a, 16a, c). Epigyne scape is generally not curved medially, but almost straight (Fig. 15b, 16b, d).

Only two specimens had collection dates on their original labels, indicating they were collected in September and March. No habitat information was available on the original labels.

Carepalxis bilobata has been found in three Australian states: New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17.

Distribution records of Carepalxis bilobata Keyserling, 1886.

Holotype. Female, Munyeroo Conservation Park, 17 km SSE Moonabbie (33°23′S, 137°21′E, South Australia, AUSTRALIA), 22–30 September 2002, SAM NN30840.

AUSTRALIA: Australian Capital Territory: 2 females, Canberra, 35°18′S, 149°08′E, QM S121045. New South Wales: 1 female, Caldwell, 35°37′S, 144°30′E, NMV K-13317; 1 female, Woolshed 3, ‘Brotherony’, via Condolobin, 33°06′S, 146°38′E, 02 March 2002, AM KS.91254. South Australia: 1 female, Hamley Bridge, 34°21′S, 138°40′E, February 1898, SAM NN30833; 1 female, Hope Valley, Adelaide, 34°51′S, 138°41′E, 20 January 1925, SAM NN30832. Victoria: 1 female, Gowar East, 36°33′S, 143°25′E, 15 February 1909, NMV K-13312. Western Australia: 2 females, Geraldton, 28°46′S, 114°37′E, AM KS.34298; 2 males, Sabina River, 33°39′S, 115°24′E, collected in nests of mud dauber wasps, 27 January 1984, WAM T37231–32; 2 females, 3 juveniles, same locality as previous, 27 January 1994, WAM T37226–30.

The specific epithet is a patronym in honour of the Brazilian arachnologist Leonardo Ferreira Sousa, who described Care-palxis quasimodo and sent us tissue of this and Ocrepeira planalto for our molecular analysis.

Females of C. ferreirasousai sp. nov. can be distinguished from all Carepalxis by the shape of the epigyne scape being heavily sclerotised, broadly triangular and tapering to a narrow, flat and slightly elevated tip; and the central division, which is narrow and ends in two strong and curved slits, dividing the terminal portion of the posterior plate (Fig. 18c–e). Males are unknown.

Total length females 6.0–6.8 (n = 4). Very little morphological variation was detected in the specimens we examined.

According to the original labels, specimens of C. ferreirasousai were collected in January, February, March and September, possibly indicating spring to summer maturity for the species. No habitat information was provided on labels. Specimens in the samples WAM T37226–32 were collected in nests of mud wasps (genus Pison Spinola, 1808), an apparent important parasitoid of this species.

Carepalxis ferreirasousai sp. nov. specimens were collected in southern Australia, from the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria to Western Australia (Fig. 20).

Fig. 18.

Carepalxis ferreirasousai sp. nov., female holotype (SAM NN30840). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) epigyne, ventral view; (d) epigyne, lateral view; (e) epigyne, posterior view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm.

Holotype. Female, Gluepot Reserve, 8.5 km W–WNW Gluepot Homestead (33°44′S, 140°01′E, South Australia, AUSTRALIA), 26 November–6 December 2000, SAM NN18561.

Only known from holotype.

The specific name, ‘kolla’, is a Greek noun (κόλλα) used in apposition that means ‘glue’ and refers to the species type locality, Gluepot Reserve.

Females of C. kolla sp. nov. are most similar to the those of C. montifera and C. tuberculata as they share an epigyne with conspicuous rounded lateral lobes, and a scape with base elevated and its tip surpassing the epigyne area by less than 1/3 of the scape’s length (Fig. 5d, e, 19c, d, 29c, d). However, C. kolla sp. nov. and C. montifera differ from C. tuberculata by the epigyne scape that almost completely covers the atrium (Fig. 5d, e, 19c, d), whereas C. kolla sp. nov. can be differentiated from C. montifera by the longer than wide epigyne atrium, and a scape with a more acute tip reaching over the epigyne area by 1/5 of the scape’s length (v. atrium as long as wide, and scape reaching over the epigyne area by 1/4 of scape’s length in C. montifera) (Fig. 19c, d). Males are unknown.

Carepalxis kolla sp. nov. is only known from its holotype.

The holotype of C. kolla sp. nov. was collected at the end of November–beginning of December. No habitat data were cited on the original label.

Carepalxis kolla sp. nov. is only known from its type locality in south-eastern South Australia (Fig. 20).

Fig. 19.

Carepalxis kolla sp. nov., female holotype (SAM NN18561). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) epigyne, ventral view; (d) epigyne, lateral view; (e) epigyne, posterior view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm.

Fig. 20.

Distribution records of Carepalxis ferreirasousai sp. nov. and Carepalxis kolla sp. nov.

Holotype. Female, Euglo State Forest (33°31′S, 147°12′E, New South Wales, AUSTRALIA), 11 December 1998, H Smith leg., beating vegetation, AM KS.54361.

AUSTRALIA: New South Wales: 1 female, Caldwell, 35°37′S, 144°30′E, NMV K-13320. Queensland: 1 female, Muncoonie Lakes, Simpson Desert, 25°12′S, 138°41′E, QM S121044. South Australia: 1 female, Chillunie Well, 09 December 1989, SAM NN30839; 1 female, Middleback Station, 32°57′S, 137°23′E, SAM NN30857; 1 female, Oodnadatta, 27°32′S, 135°26′E, SAM NN445; 1 female, 1 juvenile, Ooldea, 30°27′S, 131°50′E, SAM NN30848–30849; 1 female, Nelshaby, 33°07′S, 138°08′E, 02 November 2004, SAM NN30829.

The specific epithet, ‘megalostylus’, is a compound noun in apposition derived from the Greek megalo (μεγάλο) – large, and stylus (στύλος) – pen or scape, and refers to the large epigyne scape of females.

The epigynes of female C. megalostylus sp. nov., C. bilobata and C. beelzebub are similar with projected lateral lobes, and a scape exceeding the epigyne area by more than 50% of the scape’s length (Fig. 9c, d, 14c, d, 15b, 16b, d, 21c, d). Carepalxis megalostylus sp. nov. and C. bilobata females differ from those of C. beelzebub by having a much longer scape with elevated base, reaching posteriorly beyond the epigyne area by more than the atrium length (v. approximately atrium length in C. beelzebub) (Fig. 9c, 12a, b, 14c, d, 15b, 16b, d, 21c, d). Carepalxis megalostylus sp. nov. females differ from those of C. bilobata by the scape almost completely covering the epigyne atrium and by the smaller inwardly projected baso-lateral flaps (Fig. 21c, e, 22c, e). Males are unknown.

Total length females 4.8–6.9 (n = 5). The abdomen shape is variable, with some specimens having two conspicuously elongated and pointed humps (e.g. Fig. 22a). The epigyne scape is broken off in most of the specimens checked with the break point either closer to its base (Fig. 22b) or often at a point closer to the tip of the scape (Fig. 22c, d). The central division can also slightly vary in width (Fig. 22e).

The only specimens with dates available in the original labels showed them to be collected in November–December. No habitat data were available for any specimen.

Carepalxis megalostylus sp. nov. has been found in New South Wales, Queensland and South Australia (Fig. 23).

Fig. 21.

Carepalxis megalostylus sp. nov., female holotype (AM KS.54361). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) epigyne, ventral view; (d) epigyne, lateral view; (e) epigyne, posterior view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm.

Fig. 22.

Carepalxis megalostylus sp. nov., female variations. (a) Lateral habitus (SAM NN30848); (b) broken off epigyne scape at base, ventral view (SAM NN30857); (c) broken off epigyne scape after atrium, ventral view (SAM NN30829); (d) broken off epigyne scape after atrium, lateral view (SAM NN30829); (e) broken off epigyne scape after the atrium next to its tip, posterior view (SAM NN30829). Scale bars: (a) 2 mm; (b–e) 0.2 mm. The black arrows indicate the scape breaking points.

Fig. 23.

Distribution records of Carepalxis megalostylus sp. nov.

Holotype. Male, W of Bookabie (31°49′S, 132°32′E, South Australia, AUSTRALIA), 25 August 1998, D Hirst leg., SAM NN30842.

AUSTRALIA: Australian Capital Territory: 1 male, Cook, 23 Grylls Crescent, 35°16′S, 149°04′E, 30 October 1983, WAM T75286. New South Wales: 1 male, Hornsby, Waitara Creek, 33°42′S, 151°05′E, 12 February 2004, AM KS.91104; 1 female, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, path behind headquarter, 33°30′S, 151°08′E, 20 September 1998, AM KS.54010; 1 female, Rocky Hall, ‘Wonga’, 36°55′S, 149°30′E, 11 November 2004, AM KS.90418; 1 female, Royal National Park, 34°08′S, 151°04′E, 05 February 1978, AM KS.1299. Queensland: 1 female, Brisbane, 27°28′S, 153°01′E, QM W874; 1 female, Monto, 24°52′S, 151°07′E, QM S121052. South Australia: 1 female, Blackwood, 35°01′S, 138°36′E, 17–19 November 1979, SAM NN24832; 1 male, Comet Bore, N of Bunns Bore, 35°45′S, 140°48′E, 03 December 1978, SAM NN30843; 1 male, Mt Lofty, 34°59′S, 138°43′E, 05 January 1974, SAM NN30845; 1 female, Oakbank, 34°58′S, 138°51′E, June 1910, SAM NN30856; 1 female, One Tree Hill, 34°43′S, 138°39′E, 19 January 1912, SAM NN30855. Tasmania: 1 female, Kelso, 41°06′S, 146°47′E, 01 February 1963, AM KS.29077. Victoria: 1 female, Glen Waverley, ‘Black Flat’, 37°52′S, 145°09′E, 28 November 1896, NMV K-13316; 1 female, Maryborough, 37°02′S, 143°44′E, 26 November 1964, NMV K-13313. Western Australia: 1 male, Mt Ragged Campsite, Cape Arid National Park, 33°27′S, 123°27′E, 01 January 2008, WAM T81454; 1 male, Wongan Hills, 30°51′S, 116°42′E, 01 February 1949, WAM T70168.

The specific name, ‘tholos’, is a Greek noun (θόλος) in apposition that means ‘dome’ and is used in reference to the dome shaped abdomen of some females.

Males of C. tholos sp. nov. are most similar to those of C. beelzebub, both differing from C. tuberculata by the tibia of leg II having shorter pairs of macrosetae (Fig. 3a–i). Carepalxis tholos sp. nov. males differ from those of C. beelzebub by the presence of a fully formed small and rounded projection on the outer margin of the median apophysis (v. presence of the base of an unformed projection in C. beelzebub); the terminal apophysis being slightly longer and basally projected with thinner pointed tip; and the embolus being medially stronger with bent tip that is apically projected (v. medially thin with enlarged tip basally projected in C. beelzebub) (Fig. 10c, d, 11a–d, 24c, d, 25a–d). Females of C. tholos sp. nov. differ from those of all other Carepalxis by the dome-shape massive abdomen (Fig. 26a (collapsed), 27a) and an epigyne with narrow sides and thin borders, with a much wider than long atrium; the scape not protruding at its base, flattened and uniformly tapering to a rounded tip; and the central division being wide with slanted and very sclerotised borders (Fig. 26c–f).

Total length males 3.3–4.7 (n = 5). Total length females 6.9–9.9 (n = 5). The abdomen of females is extremely variable varying from short and wrinkled with short tubercles (Fig. 26a) to very elongated and dome shaped without tubercles (Fig. 27a).

According to the original specimen labels, C. tholos sp. nov. were collected between late August and February, possibly indicating a late winter to summer maturity for the species. No habitat information was available on labels.

Carepalxis tholos sp. nov. specimens were largely collected in southern half of the country, from the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and into Western Australia (Fig. 28).

Fig. 24.

Carepalxis tholos sp. nov., male holotype (SAM NN30842). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) left pedipalp, ventral view; (d) left pedipalp, retrolateral view; (e) left pedipalp, dorsal view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm. The black arrow indicates the median apophysis’ projection.

Fig. 25.

Carepalxis tholos sp. nov., male expanded left pedipalp (AM KS.91104). (a) Ventral view; (b) retrolateral view; (c) dorsal view; (d) apical view. Scale bars: 0.2 mm.

Fig. 26.

Carepalxis tholos sp. nov., female (SAM NN24832). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) schematic drawing of epigyne, ventral view, highlighting atrium and scape; (d) epigyne, ventral view; (e) epigyne, lateral view; (f) epigyne, posterior view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–f) 0.2 mm.

Fig. 27.

Carepalxis tholos sp. nov., female variation (QM W874). (a) Lateral habitus; (b) epigyne, ventral view. Scale bars: (a) 2 mm; (b) 0.2 mm.

Fig. 28.

Distribution records of Carepalxis tholos sp. nov.

Fig. 29.

Carepalxis tuberculata Keyserling, 1886, female (SAM NN30831). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) epigyne, ventral view; (d) epigyne, lateral view; (e) epigyne, posterior view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm.

1 female lectotype (herein designated) of Carepalxis tuberculata, Peak Downs (22°56′S, 148°05′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A0001776, examined (photos). 8 females and 13 juveniles paralectotypes (herein designated) of Carepalxis tuberculata, Peak Downs (22°56′S, 148°05′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A00016659. 3 juveniles paralectotypes (herein designated) of Carepalxis tuberculata, Peak Downs (22°56′S, 148°05′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A00016651. 2 females misidentified syntypes of Carepalxis tuberculata, Rockhampton (23°22′S,150°30′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A00016656, examined (photos) (both are C. montifera). 2 females paralectotypes (herein designated) of Carepalxis tuberculata, Sydney (33°53′S, 151°13′E, New South Wales, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A00016672, examined (photos of one female). 3 juveniles paralectotypes (herein designated) of Carepalxis tuberculata, Sydney (33°53′S, 151°13′E, New South Wales, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A00016670. Holotype juvenile of Carepalxis furcula, Peak Downs (22°56′S, 148°05′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA), ZMH-A0001730, examined (photos).

Holotype male of Carepalxis furcifera, Rockhampton (23°22′S,150°30′E, Queensland, AUSTRALIA) (ZMH-A0001768), examined (photos).

AUSTRALIA: Australian Capital Territory: 1 female, Canberra, 35°18′S, 149°08′E, QM S121053; 1 male, same data as previous, QM S121058. New South Wales: 1 female, 4 km W of West Wyalong, 33°55′S, 147°12′E, 26 January 1969, AM KS.50144; 1 female, Gunnedah, 30°59′S, 151°17′E, 15 September 1908, AM KS.33032; 1 female, Tambua Station, 31°26′S, 145°15′E, 02 October 1968, AM KS.53881; 6 females, Wheogo, near Dunedoo, 31°59′S, 149°24′E, AM KS.15806; 3 females, same locality as previous, AM KS.33037. Northern Territory: 1 male, Boggy Hole, Finke Gorge National Park, 24°09′S, 132°52′E, 14 September 1995, SAM NN30820; 1 female, same data as previous, SAM NN30821. Queensland: 1 female, Bang Bang Jump Up, 18°32′S, 140°40′E, QM S69385; 1 female, Camira, 27°38′S, 152°55′E, 04 December 1987, QM S2464; 1 female, Cooktown, 15°28′S, 145°15′E, QM S121057; 1 male, Crows Nest, 27°16′S, 152°03′E, QM S121041; 2 females, Curra, via Gympie, 26°04′S, 152°35′E, 04 September 1993, QM S25625; 1 female, Dalby, 27°11′S, 151°16′E, 27 February 1937, AM KS.117603; 3 females, Eidsvold, 25°22′S, 151°07′E, SAM NN30822–NN30824; 2 females, same data, SAM NN30827–NN30828; 1 female, El Arish, 17°49′S, 146°00′E, AM KS.51607; 1 male, Gatton, 27°34′S, 152°17′E, AM KS32636; 1 male, 5 females, 1 juvenile, Inala, Brisbane, 27°36′S, 152°58′E, 16 February 1992, QM S121051; 2 females, Happy Vale, Crownthorpe, 26°07′S, 151°56′E, QM S121059; 1 female, Miriam Vale, 24°19′S, 151°33′E, QM S121055; 1 female, Oakey, 27°26′S, 151°43′E, QM S121056; 1 female, Pentland, 20°32′S, 145°24′E, 09 June 1916, AM KS.33030; 1 female, 1 juvenile, same data as previous, AM KS.33033; 1 female, Pheasant Creek, Rockhampton area, 23°50′S, 150°07′E, 23 February 1994, QM S13958; 1 male, 30 females, 2 juveniles, same locality as previous, 04 January 1999, QM S124031; 1 female, Rossendale, via Gootchie, 25°51′S, 152°33′E, 20 February 1934, QM S42567; 1 female, same locality as previous, QM S121054; 1 male, Woodgate National Park area, 25°08′S, 152°58′E, QM S121050. South Australia: 1 female, 33 km S Thurlga Homestead, vicinity of salt lake, 32°44′S, 135°50′E, 28 February 1993, SAM NN30835; 1 female, Coongie Lakes, 27°11′S, 140°11′E, 29 October 1995, SAM NN30836; 1 male, Coopers Creek, 28°23′S, 137°41′E, SAM NN30814; 1 female, Dekina Creek, Orroroo, 32°44′S, 138°36′E, November 1915, SAM NN30830; 1 female, same data as previous, SAM NN30831; 1 male, Eden Valley, 34°39′S, 139°06′E, SAM NN30816; 1 male, Karte Conservation Park, 23 km NW Pinnaroo, 35°07′S, 140°43′E, 26 March 2000, SAM NN30846; 1 male, Mt Freeling Station, 12.1 km WNW Mt Fitton, 29°54′S, 139°26′E, 16–27 November 1998, SAM NN30841; 1 female, 1 juvenile, Mt Lindsay, WATcamp (Wartaru), 27°01′S, 129°52′E, 18 October 1996, SAM NN11572; 1 male, W of Whyalla, near lake, 33°07′S, 137°03′E, SAM NN30844. Victoria: 1 male, Barr Ck, Cohuna, 35°48′S 144°10′E, 14 December 1998, CVIC 1148; 1 female, Lake Hattah, 34°45′S, 142°20′E, NMV K-13318. Western Australia: 1 female, no exact locality, 23 January 1966, WAM T37189; 1 female, Byford, 32°13′S, 116°E, October 1987, WAM T37185; 1 female, Darlington, 31°55′S, 116°04′E, 08 April 1974, WAM T37200; 1 female, Forest River Mission, 15°13′S, 127°54′E, 26 April 1954, NMV K-13314; 1 female, Irrunytju Rockhole, 26°07′S, 128°58′E, 19– 21 January 1990, WAM T37192; 1 male, same data as previous, WAM T75745; 1 female, Kellerberrin, Moore Street, 31°37′S, 117°42′E, WAM T75881; 1 female, Kennedy Range ~28 km NE of Binthalya Stn homestead, 24°30′04.3″S, 115°01′03.4″E, 30 May 1995, WAM T159433; 1 female, Kununurra, 15°34′S, 128°29′E, 24 February 1989, WAM T37193; 1 male, North Walpole, S of Frankland River, 34°38′S, 116°37′E, 02 January 1986, WAM T70174; 1 female, Sabina River, 33°39′S, 115°24′E, 27 January 1994, WAM T37225; 1 female, same locality as previous, 28 January 1987, WAM T37233; 1 male, same locality as previous, 27 January 1984, WAM T77249; 3 males, same data as previous, WAM T77268; 1 male, same data as previous, WAM T98/1034-47; 1 male, same locality as previous, 12 January 1984, WAM T77287.

Females of C. tuberculata are most similar to C. montifera and C. kolla sp. nov. as they share rounded lateral epigyne lobes, and an elevated scape that reaches posteriorly past the epigyne area by less than 1/3 of the length of scape (Fig. 5d, e, 19c, d, 29c, d). However, although the scape of C. montifera and C. kolla sp. nov. almost cover the atrium completely, in C. tuberculata the scape only covers ~50% of the atrium (Fig. 29c, d). Males of C. tuberculata differ from other Carepalxis males by the longer pair of macrosetae on tibia II reaching beyond the metatarsus (Fig. 3g–i); and a pedipalp with a median apophysis longer than in other Carepalxis and with spatulate–triangular distal tip (Fig. 30c–e, 31a–d).

Total length females 6.1–9.2 (n = 5). Total length males 3.4–5.3 (n = 5). The colour of females can vary, with some of them having a dark-brown carapace and legs (e.g. SAM NN30827, SAM NN30828), whereas males can be slightly darker than described here. The female genitalia are variable among specimens studied, as in the case for the type series, where the epigyne varies from a scape of approximately the same width from base to tip (Fig. 29c, 32a) to a slightly wider and more elongated scape (Fig. 32b). Only few specimens had the scape broken off.

The species Epeira furcifera Keyserling, 1886 was described from Rockhampton, the same type locality of C. montifera and one of the type localities of C. tuberculata. It was recently transferred to Carepalxis by Framenau (2019), and even though the pedipalps of the male holotype of C. furcifera (lodged at the ZMH) are lost, we have identified males corresponding to the morphology of the species based on the original illustrations of the pedipalp made by Keyserling (1886, fig. 1a), and photos of the holotype’s macrosetae on tibia II. The original illustrations, but also the photos of C. furcifera we received from the ZMH, match the male assigned to C. tuberculata described by Simon (1896) and lodged at MNHN 17897 (Fig. 32d, e) and the males placed together with females we identified from scientific collections. Furthermore, our molecular analyses showed that the male previously described as C. furcifera is not conspecific with any of our sampled female specimens (see C. tuberculata in Fig. 1, 2 and S1). Therefore, we propose that C. furcifera is a junior synonym of C. tuberculata syn. nov.

Moreover, we herein also propose a lectotype for C. tuberculata in accordance with Article 74.1 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1999). As two of the original syntypes of C. tuberculata actually belong to C. montifera (ZMH-A00016656), the selection of a lectotype as the name-bearing type of the species is deemed important to fix the species-group name of that species. We therefore chose the female specimen of registration number ZMH-A0001776 as the lectotype of C. tuberculata because, considering the array of intraspecific variations within the species, the morphology of this specific specimen matches well with the majority of the specimens we identified.

According to the original labels, most specimens of C. tuberculata were collected between September and April, with only two specimens collected in June. Therefore, the species is considered as mainly spring and summer mature. Specimens from Queensland were collected during the wet season. No habitat preference is given on labels. One specimen was collected from nests of mud wasps (genus Pison).

The distribution of C. tuberculata includes all Australian states and territories, except Tasmania (Fig. 33).

Fig. 30.

Carepalxis tuberculata Keyserling, 1886, male (SAM NN30820). (a) Dorsal habitus; (b) ventral habitus; (c) left pedipalp, ventral view; (d) left pedipalp, retrolateral view; (e) left pedipalp, dorsal view. Scale bars: (a, b) 2 mm; (c–e) 0.2 mm. The black arrow indicates the median apophysis’ apical curved and spatulate tip.

Fig. 31.

Carepalxis tuberculata Keyserling, 1886, male expanded left pedipalp (SAM NN30841). (a) Ventral view; (b) retrolateral view; (c) dorsal view; (d) apical view. Scale bars: 0.2 mm.

Fig. 32.

Some of Carepalxis tuberculata Keyserling, 1886 original syntypes. (a–c) Female variations, epigyne, ventral view. (a) Paralectotype specimen from Peak Downs (ZMH-A0001776); (b) paralectotype specimen from Sydney (ZMH-A00016672); (c) misidentified C. montifera specimen from Rockhampton (ZMH-A00016656). (d, e) Male described by Simon (1896) (MNHN 17897). (d) Habitus, dorsal view; (e) left pedipalp, ventral view. Scale bars: (a–c) 0.1 mm; (d) 1 mm; (e) 0.25 mm.

Fig. 33.

Distribution records of Carepalxis tuberculata Keyserling, 1886.

When Levi (1993) revised Ocrepeira, he largely diagnosed the genus against New World araneids, such as Pozonia Schenkel, 1953, Acacesia Simon, 1895, Wixia O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882, Parawixia F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1904 and Wagneriana F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1904 based on the carapace shape (wide in eye region, low clypeus height), with two anterior humps, and attachment point of the pedicel (anterior half of the abdomen). The paramedian apophysis (=basal conductor lobe) of the male pedipalp in Ocrepeira species is L shaped, in contrast to Eriophora Simon, 1864 and Parawixia (disc shaped). Females were differentiated from Neoscona Simon, 1864 by, for example, a more sclerotised carapace and a wider cephalic region. However, Levi (1993) did not provide explicit synapomorphies for the genus. Hopfe et al. (2005) added a new Colombian species to Ocrepeira and confirmed the new species had the diagnostic characters suggested by Levi (1993). Their generic placement was also supported by COI molecular data. Ferreira-Sousa and Motta (2022) included two new species from Brazil in Carepalxis, like Levi (1992), largely based on the two humps on the female carapace. However, they for the first time questioned the diagnoses of Ocrepeira and in particular that the male of one of their new Carepalxis species shared a strong similarity with the pedipalps of Ocrepeira. Levi (1992) had previously noted characters in Neotropical Carepalxis that were similar to those in Ocrepeira, such as abdomen colouration and shape of the epigyne.

It is beyond the scope of this study to provide an updated, detailed diagnosis for Ocrepeira, but it is evident that the Neotropical representatives of Carepalxis readily confirm to Levi’s (1993) diagnosis of Ocrepeira, except for the female carapace humps. As the Neotropical C. quasimodo is not related to the Australian species of Carepalxis (Fig. 1, 2, S1), we transfer C. quasimodo to the genus Ocrepeira. No other Neotropical Carepalxis was included in our phylogenetic analyses but based on the morphology of males and females of Neotropical Carepalxis we suggest that all these species be transferred to Ocrepeira.

Ocrepeira camelus comb. nov. is only known from two females from Paraguay and Argentina. We propose its transfer to Ocrepeira as argued above pending an examination of the unknown male. Levi (1992) detailed among the Neotropical Carepalxis this species was the most similar to the type species of Carepalxis based on female genitalia.

Ocrepeira gibbosa comb. nov. is the most widespread species here transferred from Carepalxis and has been reported from Mexico to northern Brazil (Levi 1992 sub C. salobrensis Simon, 1895). We propose its transfer to Ocrepeira as argued above pending an examination of the unknown male.

Ocrepeira perpera comb. nov. is only known from a single mature female from the Baja California (Mexico). We propose its transfer to Ocrepeira as argued above pending an examination of the unknown male.

Ocrepeira quasimodo comb. nov. is known from Brazil, the female holotype from Distrito Federal and three females and one male paratypes from Bahia. We propose its transfer to Ocrepeira as it was nested within a clade with other species of Ocrepeira, including the genus type species, in our molecular phylogenies (Fig. 1, 2, S1).

Ocrepeira topazio comb. nov. is only known from a single mature female from Goiás (Brazil). We propose its transfer to Ocrepeira as argued above pending an examination of the unknown male.