Soil fertility constraints and management to increase crop yields in the dryland farming systems of Aceh, Indonesia
Malem K. McLeod
A C , S. Sufardi B and S. Harden A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A NSW Department of Primary Industries, Tamworth Agricultural Institute, Tamworth NSW 2340, Australia.
B Universitas Syiah Kuala, Darussalam, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia.
C Corresponding author. Email: malem.mcleod@dpi.nsw.gov.au
Soil Research 59(1) 68-82 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR19324
Submitted: 8 November 2019 Accepted: 22 July 2020 Published: 28 August 2020
Abstract
In Aceh, Indonesia, low dryland crop yields entrench rural poverty. The lack of soil fertility information hinders the development of soil management programs to assist farmers to increase crop yield. This study identified soil-based constraints to production and management options to increase crop yield. We analysed 254 soil samples from 127 dryland cropping sites across Pidie, Bireuen, Aceh Besar and Aceh Barat districts for pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), base saturation (BS) and cation exchange capacity (CEC). The dominant soils were Entisols, Inceptisols and Ultisols, with some Andisols and Mollisols. Overall, the CEC range was 10–60 cmol(+) kg–1 and available P was 0.5–702 mg kg–1 but most had poor fertility: SOC < 20.0 g kg–1, total N < 2.0 g kg–1, low basic cations and BS < 40%. The Ultisols and some Entisols and Inceptisols were acidic, with aluminium saturation >20% and available P < 6.5 mg kg–1. To sustainably increase crop yield, we concluded that these soils need lime where acidic, fertilisers for nutrients and stable carbon-rich amendments for system stability. This dataset will guide future agricultural research and development programs in Aceh to improve farmer practices and food security.
Additional keywords: dryland crops, dryland rice, maize, mungbean, soybean, tropical soils.
References
Agustiani N, Deng N, Edreira JIR, Girsang SS, Syafruddin , Sitaresmi T, Pasuquin JMC, Agus F, Grassini P (2018) Simulating rice and maize yield potential in the humid tropical environment of Indonesia. European Journal of Agronomy 101, 10–19.| Simulating rice and maize yield potential in the humid tropical environment of Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anda M, Sarwani M, Nugroho K (2012) Soil map information in Indonesia. In ‘International workshop on globalsoilmap.net Oceania node’, 7–9 February 2011, Bogor, Indonesia. (Eds M Anda, R Shofiyati, K Nugroho, Y Sulaeman, HS Mamat) pp. 1–10. (Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land Resources Research and Development (ICALRD): Bogor, Indonesia)
Arifin B, Achsani NA, Martianto D, Sari LK, Firdaus AH (2018) Modeling the Future of Indonesian Food Consumption: Final Report submitted to the National Development Planning Agency (Bappenas), World Food Programme (WFP) and Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (Jakarta)
Aswadi K, Mutia R, Mardhani M (2017) Agricultural and its contribution to poverty reduction: evidence from Aceh, Indonesia. In ‘International Conference on Science Technology and Modern Society (ICSTMS). Vol. 1’. pp. 172–177. (Samudera University: Langsa, Aceh, Indonesia)
Barrow NJ (1980) Evaluation and utilization of residual phosphorus in soils. In ‘The role of phosphorus in agriculture. Proceedings of a symposium.’ (Eds FE Khasawneh, EC Sample, EJ Kamprath) pp. 333–359. (American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America: National Fertilizer Development Center, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL, USA)
Bhatta Kaudal B, Weatherley AJ (2018) Agronomic effectiveness of urban biochar aged through co-composting with food waste. Waste Management 77, 87–97.
| Agronomic effectiveness of urban biochar aged through co-composting with food waste.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30008418PubMed |
Blair GJ, Mamaril CP, Pangerang Umar A, Momuat EO, Momuat C (1979) Sulfur nutrition of rice. I. A survey of soils of south Sulawesi, Indonesia. Agronomy Journal 71, 473–477.
| Sulfur nutrition of rice. I. A survey of soils of south Sulawesi, Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bolan NS, Duraisamy VP (2003) Role of inorganic and organic soil amendments on immobilisation and phytoavailability of heavy metals: a review involving specific case studies. Soil Research 41, 533–555.
| Role of inorganic and organic soil amendments on immobilisation and phytoavailability of heavy metals: a review involving specific case studies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
BPS (2019) Statistik Indonesia: statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2019. Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. Available at https://www.bps.go.id/subject/53/tanaman-pangan.html#subjekViewTab3 [verified August 2020].
BPT (2007) Perarangkat Uji Tanah Kering V.01 (Upland Soil Test Kit) Departemen Pertanian. (Balai Penelitian Tanah: Bogor, Indonesia)
Chan KY, Xu ZH (2009) Biochar: nutrient properties and their enhancement. In ‘Biochar for environmental management science and technology.’ (Eds J Lehmann, S Joseph) pp. 67–84. (Earthscan: London)
Chan KY, Van Zwieten L, Meszaros I, Downie A, Joseph S (2007) Agronomic values of greenwaste biochar as a soil amendment. Australian Journal of Soil Research 45, 629–634.
| Agronomic values of greenwaste biochar as a soil amendment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chan KY, Van Zwieten L, Meszaros I, Downie A, Joseph S (2008) Using poultry litter biochars as soil amendments. Soil Research 46, 437–444.
| Using poultry litter biochars as soil amendments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Clara L, Fatma R, Viridiana A, Liesl W (2017) ‘Soil organic carbon: the hidden potential.’ (FAO: Rome)
Craswell E, Lefroy R (2001) The role and function of organic matter in tropical soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 61, 7–18.
| The role and function of organic matter in tropical soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dariah A, Heryani N (2014) Pemberdayaan Lahan Kering Suboptimal untuk Mendukung Kebijakan Diversifikasi dan Ketahanan Pangan. Jurnal Sumberdaya Lahan 8, 1–16.
| Pemberdayaan Lahan Kering Suboptimal untuk Mendukung Kebijakan Diversifikasi dan Ketahanan Pangan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
De Datta SK, Buresh RJ, Mamaril CP (1990) Increasing nutrient use efficiency in rice with changing needs. Fertilizer Research 26, 157–167.
| Increasing nutrient use efficiency in rice with changing needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
del Valle R, Scott T, Lugo-López M (1981) Variable response of food crops to banded and broadcast residual fertilizer P on an Ultisol. The Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico 65, 171–189.
Deptan (2017) Statistics of agricultural land 2013–2017. (Ministry of Agriculture: Jakarta)
Evans CE, Kamprath EJ (1970) Lime response as related to percent Al saturation, solution Al, and organic matter content. Soil Science Society of America Journal 34, 893–896.
| Lime response as related to percent Al saturation, solution Al, and organic matter content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fageria NK, Baligar VC (2008) Ameliorating soil acidity of tropical Oxisols by liming for sustainable crop production. Advances in Agronomy 99, 345–399.
| Ameliorating soil acidity of tropical Oxisols by liming for sustainable crop production.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
FAO (1983) ‘Maximising fertiliser use efficiency.’ (FAO Fertiliser and Plant Nutrition Service Land and Water Development Division: Rome)
FAO (2016) Countries: Indonesia. Available at http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index/en/?iso3=IDN [verified 5 August 2020].
Fiantis D, Hakim N, Van Ranst E (2005) Properties and utilization of Andisols in Indonesia. Journal of Integrated Field Science 2, 29–37.
Fox RL, Yost RS, Saidy NA, Kang BT (1985) Nutritional complexities associated with pH variables in humid tropical soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 49, 1475–1480.
| Nutritional complexities associated with pH variables in humid tropical soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Glaser B, Haumaier L, Guggenberger G, Zech W (2001) The ‘Terra Preta’ phenomenon: a model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics. Naturwissenschaften 88, 37–41.
| The ‘Terra Preta’ phenomenon: a model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11302125PubMed |
Greenland DJ, Wild A, Adams D (1992) Organic matter dynamics in soils of the tropics - from myth to complex reality. In ‘Myths and Science of Soils of the Tropics’. SSSA Special Publication No. 29. (Eds R Lal, PA Sanchez) pp. 17–33. (Soil Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI)
Handayanto E, Giller KE, Cadisch G (1997) Regulating N release from legume tree prunings by mixing residues of different quality. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 29, 1417–1426.
| Regulating N release from legume tree prunings by mixing residues of different quality.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harris HC (1949) The effect on the growth of peanuts of nutrient deficiencies in the root and in the pegging zone. Plant Physiology 24, 150–161.
| The effect on the growth of peanuts of nutrient deficiencies in the root and in the pegging zone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16654198PubMed |
Hartono A, Funakawa S, Kosaki T (2005) Phosphorus sorption-desorption characteristics of selected acid upland soils in Indonesia. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 51, 787–799.
| Phosphorus sorption-desorption characteristics of selected acid upland soils in Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haynes R, Mokolobate MS (2001) Amelioration of Al toxicity and P deficiency in acid soils by additions of organic residues: a critical review of the phenomenon and the mechanisms involved. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 59, 47–63.
| Amelioration of Al toxicity and P deficiency in acid soils by additions of organic residues: a critical review of the phenomenon and the mechanisms involved.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hazelton P, Murphy B (2007) ‘Interpreting soil test results: what do all the numbers mean?’ 2nd edn. (CSIRO: Collingwood, Victoria, Australia)
Helyar KR (1991) The management of acid soils. In ‘Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH’, 24–29 June 1990, Beckley West Virginia, USA. (Eds RJ Wright, VC Baligar, RP Murrmann) pp. 365–382. (Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht)
Herridge DF, Peoples MB, Boddey RM (2008) Global inputs of biological nitrogen fixation in agricultural systems. Plant and Soil 311, 1–18.
| Global inputs of biological nitrogen fixation in agricultural systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Herridge DF, Mar Mar W, Khin Mar Mar N, Khin Lay K, Su Su W, Tun S, Yu Yu M, Denton MD, Cornish PS (2019) The cropping systems of the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar: productivity constraints and possible solutions. Agricultural Systems 169, 31–40.
| The cropping systems of the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar: productivity constraints and possible solutions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hulugalle NR, Jaya R, Luther GC, Ferizal M, Daud S, Yatiman , Irhas , Yufniati ZA, Feriyanti F, Tamrin , Han B (2009) Physical properties of tsunami-affected soils in Aceh, Indonesia: 2 1/2 years after the tsunami. Catena 77, 224–231.
| Physical properties of tsunami-affected soils in Aceh, Indonesia: 2 1/2 years after the tsunami.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Husnain , Rochayati S, Sutriadi T, Nassir A, Sarwani M (2014) Improvement of soil fertility and crop production through direct application of phosphate rock on maize in Indonesia. Procedia Engineering 83, 336–343.
| Improvement of soil fertility and crop production through direct application of phosphate rock on maize in Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Islam J, Mannan M, Khaliq Q, Rahman M (2018) Growth and yield response of maize to rice husk biochar. Australian Journal of Crop Science 12, 1813–1819.
| Growth and yield response of maize to rice husk biochar.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jama B, Palm CA, Buresh RJ, Niang A, Gachengo C, Nziguheba G, Amadalo B (2000) Tithonia diversifolia as a green manure for soil fertility improvement in western Kenya: a review. Agroforestry Systems 49, 201–221.
| Tithonia diversifolia as a green manure for soil fertility improvement in western Kenya: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jenkinson DS, Ayanaba A (1977) Decomposition of carbon-14 labeled plant material under tropical conditions. Soil Science Society of America Journal 41, 912–915.
| Decomposition of carbon-14 labeled plant material under tropical conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kamprath EJ (1967) Residual effect of large applications of phosphorus on high phosphorus fixing soils. Agronomy Journal 59, 25–27.
| Residual effect of large applications of phosphorus on high phosphorus fixing soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kamprath EJ (1984) Crop response to lime on soils in the tropics. In ‘Soil acidity and liming, Volume 12.’ 2nd edn. (Ed. F Adams) (American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America)
Kamprath EJ, Smyth TJ (2005) Liming. In ‘Encyclopedia of soils in the environment.’ (Ed. D Hillel) pp. 350–358. (Elsevier/Academic Press: Oxford, UK)
Kang BT, Osiname OA (1985) Micronutrient problems in tropical Africa. Fertilizer Research 7, 131–150.
| Micronutrient problems in tropical Africa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kanwar JS, Youngdahl LJ (1985) Micronutrient needs of tropical food crops. In ‘Micronutrients in tropical food crop production.’ (Ed. PLG Vlek) pp. 43–67. (Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht)
Katyal JC, Vlek PLG (1985) Micronutrient problems in tropical Asia. In ‘Micronutrients in tropical food crop production.’ (Ed. PLG Vlek) pp. 69–94 (Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht)
Katyal JC, Vlek PLG (2000) Desertification - concept, causes and amelioration. ZEF – Discussion Papers On Development Policy No. 33, Center for Development Research, Bonn.
Kumar K, Goh KM (1999) Crop residues and management practices: effects on soil quality, soil nitrogen dynamics, crop yield, and nitrogen recovery. Advances in Agronomy 68, 197–319.
| Crop residues and management practices: effects on soil quality, soil nitrogen dynamics, crop yield, and nitrogen recovery.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lal R (2006) Enhancing crop yields in the developing countries through restoration of the soil organic carbon pool in agricultural lands. Land Degradation & Development 17, 197–209.
| Enhancing crop yields in the developing countries through restoration of the soil organic carbon pool in agricultural lands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lehmann J, Joseph S (2009) Biochar for environmental management: an introduction. In ‘Biochar for environmental management: science and technology’. (Eds J Lehmann, S Joseph) (International Biochar Initiative: Westerville, OH, USA)
Marschner P (1995) ‘Mineral nutrition of higher plants.’ 2nd edn. (Academic Press: London)
McLeod MK, Slavich PG, Irhas Y, Moore N, Rachman A, Ali N, Iskandar T, Hunt C, Caniago C (2010) Soil salinity in Aceh after the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Agricultural Water Management 97, 605–613.
| Soil salinity in Aceh after the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLeod MK, Schwenke GD, Cowie AL, Harden S (2013) Soil carbon is only higher in the surface soil under minimum tillage in Vertosols and Chromosols of New South Wales North-West Slopes and Plains, Australia. Soil Research 51, 680–694.
| Soil carbon is only higher in the surface soil under minimum tillage in Vertosols and Chromosols of New South Wales North-West Slopes and Plains, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McLeod MK, Sufardi S, Zaitun, Sabaruddin Z, Nazariah, Ramlan, Devianti, Irhas, Ferizal, Dadd S (2019) Final Report for project SMCN-2012-10: Improving soil and water management and crop productivity of dryland agriculture systems of Aceh (Indonesia) and New South Wales (Australia). ACIAR, Canberra. https://www.aciar.gov.au/project/SMCN-2012-103. Submitted to ACIAR on 24 September 2019. Not available online.
Mukherjee A, Lal R (2014) The biochar dilemma. Soil Research 52, 217–230.
| The biochar dilemma.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mulyani A, Sarwani M (2013) Karakteristik dan potensi lahan suboptimal untuk pengembangan pertanian di Indonesia. Jurnal Sumberdaya Lahan 7,
Murphy BW (2015) Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties—a review with emphasis on Australian soils. Soil Research 53, 605–635.
| Impact of soil organic matter on soil properties—a review with emphasis on Australian soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Musa M, Singh A (2019) Performance of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) with rice husk biochar and Christmas Island rock phosphate application. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture 8, 93–101.
| Performance of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) with rice husk biochar and Christmas Island rock phosphate application.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nanzyo M, Dahlgren R, Shoji S (1993) Chapter 6 Chemical characteristics of volcanic ash soils. In ‘Developments in soil science. Vol. 21.’ (Eds S Shoji, M Nanzyo and R Dahlgren) pp. 145–187. (Elsevier)
Njoku BO, Enwezor WO, Onyenakwe BI (1987) Calcium deficiency identified as an important factor limiting maize growth in acid Ultisols of eastern Nigeria. Fertilizer Research 14, 113–123.
| Calcium deficiency identified as an important factor limiting maize growth in acid Ultisols of eastern Nigeria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
NSW DPI (2014) Crop management - case study: empty peanut pods. In ‘Restoring agriculture after a tsunami: the experience from Aceh, Indonesia.’ (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR): Canberra). Available at https://www.aciar.gov.au/node/12586 [verified 6 August 2020].
OECD (2013) Global food security: challenges for the food and agricultural system. (OECD Publishing: Paris)
Ogawa M, Okimori Y (2010) Pioneering works in biochar research, Japan. Soil Research 48, 489–500.
| Pioneering works in biochar research, Japan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oladele SO, Adeyemo AJ, Awodun MA (2019) Influence of rice husk biochar and inorganic fertilizer on soil nutrients availability and rain-fed rice yield in two contrasting soils. Geoderma 336, 1–11.
| Influence of rice husk biochar and inorganic fertilizer on soil nutrients availability and rain-fed rice yield in two contrasting soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oldeman L (1980) The agroclimatic classification of rice-growing environments in Indonesia. In ‘World Meteorological Organization; International Rice Research Institute: Proceedings of a symposium on the agrometeorology of the rice crop.’ pp. 47–55. (IRRI: Philippines)
Palm CA (1995) Contribution of agroforestry trees to nutrient requirements of intercropped plants. Agroforestry Systems 30, 105–124.
| Contribution of agroforestry trees to nutrient requirements of intercropped plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Palm CA, Giller KE, Mafongoya PL, Swift MJ (2001) Management of organic matter in the tropics: translating theory into practice. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 61, 63–75.
| Management of organic matter in the tropics: translating theory into practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pinstrup-Andersen P, Pandya-Lorch R (1994) ‘Alleviating poverty, intensifying agriculture, and effectively managing natural resources.’ (IFPRI: Washington DC)
Prasad R, Hobbs PR (2018) Efficient nitrogen management in the tropics and subtropics. In ‘Soil nitrogen uses and environmental impacts.’ 1st edn. (Eds R Lal, BA Stewart) (CRC Press)
Prasertsak P, Freney JR, Denmead OT, Saffigna PG, Prove BG, Reghenzani JR (2002) Effect of fertilizer placement on nitrogen loss from sugarcane in tropical Queensland. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 62, 229–239.
| Effect of fertilizer placement on nitrogen loss from sugarcane in tropical Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Prochnow L, Resende A, Junior A, Francisco E, Casarin V, Pavinato P (2018) Phosphorus placement for annual crops in the tropics. Better Crops 102, 21–24. Available at http://www.ipni.net/publication/bettercrops.nsf/0/EB2DE264EE2152838525823400689A64/$FILE/BC-2018-1-6%20p21.pdf [verified 24 August 2020]
Quilty JR, Cattle SR (2011) Use and understanding of organic amendments in Australian agriculture: a review. Soil Research 49, 1–26.
| Use and understanding of organic amendments in Australian agriculture: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rachman A, Wahyunto, Agus F (2005) Integrated management for sustainable use of tsunami-affected land in Indonesia. In ‘Mid-term Workshop on Sustainable Use of Problem Soils in Rainfed Agriculture. Khon Khaen, Thailand, 14–18 April 2005’. Available at https://docplayer.net/50921540-Integrated-management-for-sustainable-use-of-tsunami-affected-land-in-indonesia-1.html [verified 16 August 2020]
Ritung S, Nugroho K, Mulyani A, Suryani E (2011) ‘Petunjuk teknis evaluasi lahan untuk komoditas pertanian.’ (BBBSLP, Kementerian Pertanian: Jakarta, Indonesia)
Ross SM (1993) Organic matter in tropical soils: current conditions, concerns and prospects for conservation. Progress in Physical Geography 17, 265–305.
| Organic matter in tropical soils: current conditions, concerns and prospects for conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roy RN, Finck A, Blair GJ, Tandon HLS (2006) ‘Plant nutrition for food security: a guide for integrated nutrient management.’ (FAO, UN: Rome)
Sanchez PA (1980) Soils of the tropics. In ‘Properties and management of soils in the tropics.’ 2 edn. (Ed. PA Sanchez) pp. 82–119. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge) https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/properties-and-management-of-soils-in-the-tropics/soils-of-the-tropics/418C3BA2A644E085C10A5447BCB031DB
Sanchez PA (1989) Chapter 4 – Soils. In ‘Tropical rain forest ecosystems.’ (Eds H Lieth, MJA Werger) pp. 73–88. (Elsevier: Amsterdam)
Sanchez PAJ (1997) Changing tropical soil fertility paradigms: from Brazil to Africa and back. In ‘Plant-soil interactions at low pH: Sustainable agriculture and forestry production.’ (Eds AC Moniz, AMC Fulani, RE Shaffert, NK Fageria, CA Rosolem, H Cantarella) pp. 19–28. (Brazilian Soil Science Society: Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil)
Sanchez PA (1999) Improved fallows come of age in the tropics. Agroforestry Systems 47, 3–12.
| Improved fallows come of age in the tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sanchez PA, Logan TJ (1992) Myths and science about the chemistry and fertility of soils in the tropics. In ‘Myths and science of soils of the tropics.’ (Eds R. Lal and PA Sanchez) pp. 35–46 https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2136/sssaspecpub29.c3
Sanchez P, Palm C, Buol S (2003) Fertility capability soil classification: A tool to help assess soil quality in the tropics. Geoderma 114, 157–185.
| Fertility capability soil classification: A tool to help assess soil quality in the tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schulze K (2004) The Free Aceh Movement (GAM): Anatomy Of A Separatist Organization (East-West Center: Washington DC) Available at https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/PS002.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=31983 [verified 24 August 2020]
Shofiyati R, Las I, Agus F (2010) Indonesian soil data base and predicted stock of soil carbon. In ‘International Workshop on Evaluation and Sustainable Management of Soil Carbon Sequestration in Asian Countries’, Sept. 28–29, 2010, Bogor, Indonesia.
Sigmund G, Huber D, Bucheli T, Baumann M, Borth N, Guebitz G, Hofmann T (2017) Cytotoxicity of biochar: a workplace safety concern? Environmental Science & Technology Letters 4, 362–366.
| Cytotoxicity of biochar: a workplace safety concern?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Singh B, Singh BP, Cowie AL (2010) Characterisation and evaluation of biochars for their application as a soil amendment. Soil Research 48, 516–525.
| Characterisation and evaluation of biochars for their application as a soil amendment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Slavich PG, Petterson GH (1993) Estimating the electrical conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil:water suspensions and texture. Australian Journal of Soil Research 31, 73–81.
| Estimating the electrical conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil:water suspensions and texture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Slavich PG, Sinclair K, Morris SG, Kimber SWL, Downie A, Van Zwieten L (2013) Contrasting effects of manure and green waste biochars on the properties of an acidic ferralsol and productivity of a subtropical pasture. Plant and Soil 366, 213–227.
| Contrasting effects of manure and green waste biochars on the properties of an acidic ferralsol and productivity of a subtropical pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smithson PC Sanchez PA (2001) Plant nutritional problems in marginal soils of developing countries. In ‘Plant nutrient acquisition’. (Eds N Ae, J Arihara, K Okada, A Srinivasan) pp. 32–68. (Springer, Tokyo)
Soil Survey Staff (2014) ‘Keys to soil taxonomy.’ 12th edn. (United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service: Washington DC)
Sparrow L, Chapman K, Parsley D, Hardman P, Cullen B (1992) Response of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum cv. Russet Burbank) to band-placed and broadcast high cadmium phosphorus fertiliser on heavily cropped krasnozems in north-western Tasmania. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 32, 113–119.
| Response of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum cv. Russet Burbank) to band-placed and broadcast high cadmium phosphorus fertiliser on heavily cropped krasnozems in north-western Tasmania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Subardja D, Ritung S, Anda M, Sukarman, Suryaini E, Subandiono RE (2016) ‘Petunjuk Teknis Klasifikasi Tanah Nasional.’ 2nd edn. (Kementrian Pertanian Indonesia: Bogor)
Syers JK, Johnston AE, Curtin D (2008) ‘Efficiency of soil and fertilizer phosphorus use.’ (FAO: Rome)
National Committee on Soil and Terrain (2009) ‘Australian soil and land survey field handbook.’ 3rd edn. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
The World Bank (2008) Chapter III: Options for improving rice productivity, The World Bank, No. 44434-ID, Jakarta. Available at http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/366641468267312975/pdf/444340ESW0Whit10Box345622B01PUBLIC1.pdf [verified 6 August 2020].
The World Bank (2019) Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP). Available at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS [verified 6 August 2020].
UN (2019) World population prospects 2019. Available at https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/ [verified 6 August 2020].
Van Zwieten L, Kimber S, Morris S, Chan KY, Downie A, Rust J, Joseph S, Cowie A (2010) Effects of biochar from slow pyrolysis of papermill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility. Plant and Soil 327, 235–246.
| Effects of biochar from slow pyrolysis of papermill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vinh H, Tam HM, Bell RW, Mann S, Nhan DT, Thuong NT, Cuong HH, Bao PV, Keen B, Slavich P (2015) Integrated nutrient management of annual and perennial crops on sandy coastal plains of south-central coastal Vietnam. In ‘Sustainable and profitable crop and livestock systems in south-central coastal Vietnam’, 5–6 March 2013, Quy Nhon, Vietnam. (Eds S Mann, MC Webb, RW Bell) pp. 80–90. (ACIAR: Canberra)
Vityakon P, Meepech S, Cadisch G, Toomsan B (2000) Soil organic matter and nitrogen transformation mediated by plant residues of different qualities in sandy acid upland and paddy soils. NJAS Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 48, 75–90.
| Soil organic matter and nitrogen transformation mediated by plant residues of different qualities in sandy acid upland and paddy soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Walker ME (1975) Calcium requirements for peanuts. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 6, 299–313.
| Calcium requirements for peanuts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wardana IP, Zaini Z, Sembiring H (2016) Sustainable rice production intensification. In ‘Toward a Resilience Food and Nutrition Security in Indonesia.’ (Eds E Pasandaran, Haryono) pp. 61–80. (Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research and Development: Bogor, Indonesia)
Warr P, Yusuf AA (2014) Fertilizer subsidies and food self-sufficiency in Indonesia. Agricultural Economics 45, 571–588.
| Fertilizer subsidies and food self-sufficiency in Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wood S, Sebastian K, Scherr SJ (2000) ‘Pilot analysis of global ecosystems: agroecosystems.’ (International Food Policy Research Institute and World Resources Institute: Washington DC)
Yooyen J, Wijitkosum S, Sriburi T (2015) Increasing yield of soybean by adding biochar. Journal of Environmental Research and Development 9, 1066–1074.
