Impact of contrasting land-use on soil biodiversity and soil chemical properties in recently cleared forest soils of north-west Cambodia

Pao Srean; Sophary Khin; Sothea Rien; Sreynget Lo; Robert Martin; Myriam Adam; Florent Tivet

doi:10.1071/SR24093

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Previous Contents Vol 63(6)

Impact of contrasting land-use on soil biodiversity and soil chemical properties in recently cleared forest soils of north-west Cambodia

Pao Srean

^A ^* , Sophary Khin ^A , Sothea Rien ^A , Sreynget Lo ^A , Robert Martin ^B , Myriam Adam ^A ^C ^D and Florent Tivet ^E ^F ^D

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing, National University of Battambang, Battambang, Cambodia.

^B Agricultural Systems Research (Cambodia) Co. Ltd., Battambang, Cambodia.

^C CIRAD, AGAP-Institute, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier F-34398, France.

^D Agroecology for South-East Asia, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

^E CIRAD, AIDA, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier F-34398, France.

^F Department of Agricultural Land Resources Management, General Directorate of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

^* Correspondence to: sreanpao@gmail.com

Handling Editor: Brian Wilson

Soil Research 63, SR24093 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR24093

Submitted: 21 May 2024 Accepted: 5 August 2025 Published: 26 August 2025

© 2025 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Context

Rapid agrarian changes in north-west Cambodia have led to extensive deforestation for upland crop cultivation.

Aims

This study assessed the impact of four land-use types on soil chemical and biological properties and indicators of soil health.

Methods

The four land uses were fallow (16 years since forest conversion), maize–cassava (14 years), mango (16 years), and mango–cassava intercropping (15 years). Soil organic carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stocks, chemical properties, and macro-/meso-fauna were measured at four depths. Soil health indicators were assessed at 0–10 cm: permanganate oxidisable carbon (POXC), aggregation, water infiltration, and visual evaluation of soil structure.

Key results

Agricultural lands showed lower topsoil C than fallow, with mango–cassava intercropping exhibiting a C depletion rate of −1.42 Mg C ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. Significant N depletion occurred under maize–cassava and mango–cassava (−250 and −260 kg N ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, respectively). Maize–cassava had a higher C/N ratio due to lower N concentrations. Water aggregate stability and POXC were significantly lower under mango–cassava and maize–cassava. Soil fauna abundance and richness were reduced in agricultural lands.

Conclusions

The forest conversion to agriculture negatively impacted topsoil C (38% loss), labile C (35–70% loss), soil aggregation, and soil fauna.

Implications

These findings highlight the need to evaluate the costs of soil fertility depletion and explore and promote alternative management practices such as conservation agriculture and agroforestry, alongside financial mechanisms for soil restoration.

Keywords: cassava, deforestation, perennial crops, permanganate oxidisable carbon (POXC), soil organic carbon, soil structure, water aggregate stability, water infiltration.

References

Achard F, Eva HD, Mayaux P, Stibig H-J, Belward A (2004) Improved estimates of net carbon emissions from land cover change in the tropics for the 1990s. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18(2), 1-11.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

ADB (2021) Cambodia agriculture, natural resources, and rural development sector assessment, strategy, and road map. ADB.

Akhila A, Entoori K (2022) Role of earthworms in soil fertility and its impact on agriculture: a review. International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 9(3), 55-63.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Beare MH, Hendrix PF, Cabrera ML, Coleman DC (1994) Aggregate-protected and unprotected organic matter pools in conventional- and no-tillage soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58(3), 787-795.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Birkhofer K, Gossner MM, Diekötter T, Drees C, Ferlian O, Maraun M, Scheu S, Weissner WW, Wolters V, Wurst S, Zaitsev AS, Smith HK (2017) Land-use type and intensity differentially filter traits in above- and below-ground arthropod communities. Journal of Animal Ecology 86(3), 511-520.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Blake GR, Hartge KH (1986) Bulk Density. In ‘Methods of soil analysis, part I. Physical and mineralogical methods: agronomy monograph no. 9.’ 2nd edn. (Ed. A Klute) pp. 363–375. (ASA SSSA: Madison, WI, USA)

Bray RH (1948) Correlation of soil tests with crop response to fertilizers and with fertilizer requirement. In ‘Diagnostic techniques for soils and crops’. (Ed. HB Kitchen) pp. 53–86. (Am. Potash Inst.: Washington, D.C)

Chazdon RL (2014) ‘Second growth: the promise of tropical forest regeneration in an age of deforestation.’ (University of Chicago Press)

Coineau Y, Cleva R, du Chatenet G (1997) ‘Ces animaux minuscules qui nous entourent.’ (Delachaux et Niestlé: Paris)

Crocker CD (1962) Exploratory survey of the soils of Cambodia. Royal Cambodian Government Soil Commission and US Agency for International Development, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

De Blécourt M, Brumme R, Xu J, Corre MD, Veldkamp E (2013) Soil carbon stocks decrease following conversion of secondary forests to rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations. PLoS ONE 8(7), e69357.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Dick RP (1992) A review: long-term effects of agricultural systems on soil biochemical and microbial parameters. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 40(1–4), 25-36.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Don A, Schumacher J, Freibauer A (2011) Impact of tropical land-use change on soil organic carbon stocks – a meta-analysis. Global Change Biology 17(4), 1658-1670.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Edwards CA, Fletcher KE (1970) Assessment of terrestrial invertebrate populations. In ‘Methods of study in soil ecology.’ (Ed. J Phillipson) pp. 57–66. (UNESCO, Paris)

Ellert BH, Janzen HH, Entz T (2002) Assessment of a method to measure temporal change in soil carbon storage. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66(5), 1687-1695.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

FAO (2020) Global forest resources assessment 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Feller C, Beare MH (1997) Physical control of soil organic matter dynamics in the tropics. Geoderma 79(1–4), 69-116.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Franco ALC, Cherubin MR, Cerri CEP, Guimarães RML, Cerri CC (2017) Relating the visual soil structure status and the abundance of soil engineering invertebrates across land use change. Soil and Tillage Research 173, 49-52.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Franzluebbers AJ (2002) Soil organic matter stratification ratio as an indicator of soil quality. Soil and Tillage Research 66(2), 95-106.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fujisaki K, Chevallier T, Chapuis-Lardy L, Albrecht A, Razafimbelo T, Masse D, Ndour YB, Chotte JL (2018) Soil carbon stock changes in tropical croplands are mainly driven by carbon inputs: a synthesis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 259, 147-158.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Guimarães RML, Ball BC, Tormena CA (2011) Improvements in the visual evaluation of soil structure. Soil Use and Management 27(3), 395-403.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Guimarães RML, Ball BC, Tormena CA, Giarola NFB, Da Silva AP (2013) Relating visual evaluation of soil structure to other physical properties in soils of contrasting texture and management. Soil and Tillage Research 127, 92-99.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Guo LB, Gifford RM (2002) Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis. Global Change Biology 8(4), 345-360.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hok L, Sá JCdM, Boulakia S, Reyes M, Leng V, Kong R, Tivet FE, Briedis C, Hartman DD, Ferreira LA, Magno T, Pheav S (2015) Short-term conservation agriculture and biomass-C input impacts on soil C dynamics in a savanna ecosystem in Cambodia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 214, 54-67.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hok L, de Moraes Sa JK, Reyes M, Boulakia S, Tivet F, Leng V, Kong R, Briedis C, Da Cruz Hartman D, Ferreira LA, Inagaki TM, Goncalves DRP, Bressan PT (2018) Enzymes and C pools as indicators of C build up in short-term conservation agriculture in a savanna ecosystem in Cambodia. Soil and Tillage Research 177, 125-133.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Houghton RA (1999) The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850–1990. Tellus 51B, 298-313.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Howeler RH (2002) Cassava mineral nutrition and fertilization. In ‘Cassava: biology, production and utilization’. (Eds RJ Hillocks, JM Thresh, AC Bellotti) pp. 115–147. (CAB International)

IUSS Working Group WRB (2015) World reference base for soil resources 2014, update 2015 international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.

Kladivko EJ (2001) Tillage systems and soil ecology. Soil and Tillage Research 61(1–2), 61-76.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kong R, Castella J-C (2021) Farmers’ resource endowment and risk management affect agricultural practices and innovation capacity in the Northwestern uplands of Cambodia. Agricultural Systems 190, 103067.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kong R, Diepart J-C, Castella J-C, Lestrelin G, Tivet F, Belmain E, Bégué A (2019) Understanding the drivers of deforestation and agricultural transformations in the Northwestern uplands of Cambodia. Applied Geography 102, 84-98.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Koun P, Vernet P-A, Filloux T, Sar V, Seng V, Srimongkol P, Tantachasatid P, Sen R, Pheap S, Tivet F, Thoumazeau A (2024) Early effects of conservation agriculture on soil organic carbon dynamics of Mollisols in Cambodia. Soil Use and Management 40(1), e12922.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kruskal WH, Wallis WA (1952) Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association 47(260), 583-621.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lal R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304(5677), 1623-1627.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Lê S, Josse J, Husson F (2008) FactoMineR: an R package for multivariate analysis. Journal of Statistical Software 25, 1-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Leng V, Cardinael R, Tivet F, Seng V, Mark P, Lienhard P, Filloux T, Six J, Hok L, Boulakia S, Briedis C, Sá JCdM, Thuriès L (2024) Diachronic assessment of soil organic C and N dynamics under long-term no-till cropping systems in the tropical upland of Cambodia. SOIL 10, 699-725.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lienhard P, Tivet F, Chabanne A, Dequiedt S, Lelièvre M, Sayphoummie S, Leudphanane B, Prévost-Bouré NC, Séguy L, Maron P-A, Ranjard L (2013) No-till and cover crops shift soil microbial abundance and diversity in Laos tropical grasslands. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 33(2), 375-384.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

MAFF (2012) Annual report on agriculture, forestry and fishery 2011–2012 and Directions 2011-2012. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Royal Government of Cambodia.

MAFF (2022) Annual report on agriculture, forestry and fishery 2019–2020 and Directions 2020-2021. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Royal Government of Cambodia.

Martin RJ, Patrick I, Cowley F, Scott JF, Pen M, Touch V, Sorn S, Seng M, Seng V, Montgomery S, Srean P (2017) Final report: market-focused integrated crop and livestock enterprises for NW Cambodia. Project ASEM/2010/049. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

McGee KM, Porter TM, Wright M, Hajibabaei M (2020) Drivers of tropical soil invertebrate community composition and richness across tropical secondary forests using DNA metasystematics. Scientific Reports 10(1), 18429.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Moncada MP, Penning LH, Timm LC, Gabriels D, Cornelis WM (2014) Visual examinations and soil physical and hydraulic properties for assessing soil structural quality of soils with contrasting textures and land uses. Soil and Tillage Research 140, 20-28.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Montgomery SC, Tighe MK, Guppy C, Wright G, Flavel RJ, Phan S, Im S, Martin RJ (2016) Yield responses of maize and sunflower to mulch under no-till farming conditions in Northwest Cambodia. Asian Journal of Crop Science 8(2), 71-86.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Montgomery SC, Martin RJ, Guppy C, Wright GC, Tighe MK (2017) Farmer knowledge and perception of production constraints in Northwest Cambodia. Journal of Rural Studies 56, 12-20.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Murty D, Kirschbaum MUF, Mcmurtrie RE, Mcgilvray H (2002) Does conversion of forest to agricultural land change soil carbon and nitrogen? a review of the literature. Global Change Biology 8(2), 105-123.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Navarrete D, Sitch S, Aragão LE, Pedroni L (2016) Conversion from forests to pastures in the Colombian Amazon leads to contrasting soil carbon dynamics depending on land management practices. Global Change Biology 22(10), 3503-3517.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

NDC (2020) Cambodia’s updated nationally determined contribution (NDC). NDC.

Nut N, Mihara M, Jeong J, Ngo B, Sigua G, Prasad PVV, Reyes MR (2021) Land use and land cover changes and its impact on soil erosion in stung sangkae catchment of Cambodia. Sustainability 13(16), 9276.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Oelbermann M, Voroney RP, Gordon AM (2004) Carbon sequestration in tropical and temperate agroforestry systems: a review with examples from Costa Rica and southern Canada. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 104(3), 359-377.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Paul KI, Polglase PJ, Nyakuengama JG, Khanna PK (2002) Change in soil carbon following afforestation. Forest Ecology and Management 168(1–3), 241-257.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Peerawat M, Blaud A, Trap J, Chevallier T, Alonso P, Gay F, Thaler P, Spor A, Sebag D, Choosai C, Suvannang N, Sajjaphan K, Brauman A (2018) Rubber plantation ageing controls soil biodiversity after land conversion from cassava. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 257, 92-102.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pheap S, Lefèvre C, Thoumazeau A, Leng V, Boulakia S, Koy R, Hok L, Lienhard P, Brauman A, Tivet F (2019) Multi-functional assessment of soil health under Conservation Agriculture in Cambodia. Soil and Tillage Research 194, 104349.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pheap S, Thoumazeau A, Murase J, Seng V, Sarthou JP, Sar V, Kimbo L, Kheam S, Chan P, Srean P, Leang S, Hok L, Tivet F (2025) Multicriteria assessment of recently implemented conservation agriculture cropping systems across farmers’ plots in northwestern Cambodia. Farming System 3(2), 100140.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

R Core Team (2020) ‘A language and environment for statistical computing.’ (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria) Available at https://www.Rproject.org

Reeves T, Thomas G, Ramsay G (2016) ‘Save and grow in practice: maize, rice and wheat-a guide to sustainable cereal production.’ (FAO: Rome, Italy)

Sá JCdM, Séguy L, Tivet F, Lal R, Bouzinac S, Borszowskei PR, Briedis C, Bürkner dos Santos J, da Cruz Hartman D, Bertoloni CG, Rosa J, Friedrich T (2015) Carbon depletion by plowing and its restoration by no-till cropping systems in oxisols of subtropical and tropical agro-ecoregions in Brazil. Land Degradation & Development 26(6), 531-543.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Séguy L, Bouzinac S, Husson O (2006) Direct-seeded tropical soil systems with permanent soil cover: learning from Brazilian experience. In ‘Biological approach to sustainable soil systems.’ (Eds N Uphoff, AS Ball, F Fernandes) pp. 323–342. (CRC Press, Taylor and Francis: New York, USA)

Six J, Elliott ET, Paustian K (2000) Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate formation: a mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32(14), 2099-2103.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sourn T, Pok S, Chou P, Nut N, Theng D, Rath P, Reyes MR, Prasad PVV (2021) Evaluation of land use and land cover change and its drivers in Battambang Province, Cambodia from 1998 to 2018. Sustainability 13(20), 11170.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sourn T, Pok S, Chou P, Nut N, Theng D, Prasad PVV (2022) Assessment of land use and land cover changes on soil erosion using remote sensing, GIS and RUSLE model: a case study of Battambang Province, Cambodia. Sustainability 14(7), 4066.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Thoumazeau A, Bessou C, Renevier M-S, Trap J, Marichal R, Mareschal L, Decaëns T, Bottinelli N, Jaillard B, Chevallier T, Suvannang N, Sajjaphan K, Thaler P, Gay F, Brauman A (2019) Biofunctool®: a new framework to assess the impact of land management on soil quality. Part A: concept and validation of the set of indicators. Ecological Indicators 97, 100-110.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tukey JW (1949) Comparing individual means in the analysis of variance. Biometrics 5(2), 99-114.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37(1), 29-38.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weil RR, Islam KR, Stine MA, Gruver JB, Samson-Liebig SE (2003) Estimating active carbon for soil quality assessment: a simplified method for laboratory and field use. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 18(1), 3-17.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wendt JW, Hauser S (2013) An equivalent soil mass procedure for monitoring soil organic carbon in multiple soil layers. European Journal of Soil Science 64(1), 58-65.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wenjun O, Maofen L, Aye TM, Srey S (2016) Current situation of cassava production, constraints and opportunities in Cambodia. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 5(3), 64-70.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wickham H (2011) ggplot2. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics 3(2), 180-185.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zhalnina K, Dias R, De Quadros PD, Davis-Richardson A, Camargo FAO, Clark IM, McGrath SP, Hirsch PR, Triplett EW (2015) Soil pH determines microbial diversity and composition in the park grass experiment. Microbial Ecology 69, 395-406.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Zingore S, Manyame C, Nyamugafata P, Giller KE (2005) Long-term changes in organic matter of woodland soils cleared for arable cropping in Zimbabwe. European Journal of Soil Science 56(6), 727-736.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |