Conceptualising urgent care: taxonomy, terminology, and relationships with primary and emergency care
Nicole W. Carter
A B C * , Shelley Gower A , Christopher Helms D and Janie A. Brown A E F
A
B
C
D
E
F
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop a taxonomy of urgent care service models and their relationships within healthcare systems through concept mapping, and by addressing inconsistent terminology and service classifications.
This descriptive study used an iterative mapping methodology to analyse and categorise urgent care services. Data collection involved literature describing urgent care models across international healthcare systems, focusing on terminology, operational characteristics, and integration points with primary and emergency care. This was complemented by an Australian urgent care model analysis, that is, a comparative review of publicly declared service characteristics and clinical scopes across Australian urgent care models, coded to ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision) and presented in tabular form.
The concept map presents a taxonomy of healthcare services across three distinct care pathways based on condition acuity: primary care for non-urgent needs, urgent care for non-life-threatening conditions requiring prompt, non-scheduled treatment, and emergency care for acute emergencies. The map establishes standardised nomenclature, including intersectoral areas such as co-located facilities and nurse practitioner walk-in services. Supplementary analysis highlights scope variation between models, particularly differences in procedural capability, diagnostics access and mental health response. These findings inform current Australian policy directions, particularly the Medicare Urgent Care Clinics rollout.
This concept map provides a framework for examining urgent care services within the broader healthcare landscape. Alongside a comparative analysis of Australian models, it supports systematic investigation, highlights variation in service scope and design, and informs planning, integration and policy development across diverse urgent care settings.
Keywords: alternative care pathways, Australian urgent care models, concept mapping, cross sector care models, health system navigation, service boundary, urgent care integration, walk-in service.
References
1 Adie J, Graham W, Wallis M. Entry points to the health system: A review of the emerging community models for management of non-life threatening urgent conditions relevant to Australia. Asia Pac J Health Manag 2017; 12(2): 9-16.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
2 Baier N, Geissler A, Bech M, et al. Emergency and urgent care systems in Australia, Denmark, England, France, Germany and the Netherlands: analyzing organization, payment and reforms. Health Policy 2019; 123(1): 1-10.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
3 Benjamin P, Bryce R, Oyedokun T, Stempien J. Strength in the gap: a rapid review of principles and practices for urgent care centres. Healthc Manage Forum 2023; 36(2): 101-106.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
4 Royal New Zealand College of Urgent Care. What is urgent care. Royal New Zealand College of Urgent Care. 2021. Available at https://rnzcuc.org.nz/about/what-is-uc/ [accessed 2 November 2024].
5 Australasian College for Emergency Medicine. Position statement impact of urgent care centres on EDs in Australia. 2023. Available at https://acem.org.au/getmedia/f5179885-57e4-4a3c-966b-81bbdd28c9f2/S880-Position-Statement-on-the-Impact-of-Urgent-Care-Centres-on-EDs-in-Australia_1 [accessed 22 May 2024].
6 Cooper A, Edwards M, Brandling J, et al. Taxonomy of the form and function of primary care services in or alongside emergency departments: concepts paper. Emerg Med J 2019; 36(10): 625-630.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
7 Salisbury C, Munro J. Walk-in centres in primary care: a review of the international literature. Br J Gen Pract 2003; 53(486): 53-59.
| Google Scholar | PubMed |
8 Medibank Newsroom. Medibank clinic to provide urgent medical treatment. 2010. Available at https://www.medibank.com.au/livebetter/newsroom/post/medibank-clinic-to-provide-urgent-medical-treatment [accessed 19 July 2024].
9 Zimmerman DR. Community-based urgent care in Israel and worldwide. Isr J Health Policy Res 2013; 2(1): 38.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
10 Adie JW, Graham W, O’Donnell R, Wallis M. Patient presentations to an after-hours general practice, an urgent care clinic and an emergency department on Sundays: a comparative, observational study. J Health Organ Manag 2023; 37(1): 96-115.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
11 Crawford J, Cooper S, Cant R, DeSouza R. The impact of walk-in centres and GP co-operatives on emergency department presentations: a systematic review of the literature. Int Emerg Nurs 2017; 34: 36-42.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
12 NHS England. Urgent treatment centres – principles and standards. 2023. Available at https://www.england.nhs.uk/long-read/urgent-treatment-centres-principles-and-standards/ [accessed 27 March 2025].
13 Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care. About Medicare urgent care clinics. 2024. Available at https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/medicare-urgent-care-clinics/about-medicare-urgent-care-clinics [accessed 20 January 2024].
14 Government of Western Australia Department of Health. GP urgent care clinic network. 2019. Available at https://www.health.wa.gov.au/articles/f_i/gp-urgent-care-clinic-network [accessed 20 November 2023].
15 ACT Government Canberra Health Services. Walk-in Centres (WiC). 2023. Available at https://www.canberrahealthservices.act.gov.au/services-and-clinics/services/walk-in-centres-wic [accessed 2 November 2023].
16 St John WA. When it’s urgent, but not an emergency. 2023. Available at https://stjohnhealth.com.au/walk-in-urgent-care/ [accessed 2 November 2023].
17 Government of South Australia SA Health. Priority care centres. 2025. Available at https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/services/community+and+specialised+services/priority+care+centres/priority+care+centres [accessed 24 March 2025].
18 NSW Government NSW Health. Urgent care services. 2025. Available at https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Hospitals/Pages/urgent-care-services.aspx [accessed 23 March 2025].
19 Victoria State Government Department of Health. Urgent care clinics. 2024. Available at https://www.health.vic.gov.au/priority-primary-care-centres [accessed 25 March 2025].
20 Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care. Strengthening Medicare: 50 more Medicare urgent care clinics. 2025. Available at https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-mark-butler-mp/media/strengthening-medicare-50-more-medicare-urgent-care-clinics [accessed 25 March 2025].
21 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. International classification of diseases, ICD-10-CM. 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/index.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnchs%2Findex.htm [accessed 27 March 2025].
22 Grant C, Osanloo A. Understanding, selecting, and integrating a theoretical framework in dissertation research: Creating the blueprint for your “house”. Admin Issues J Educ Pract Res 2014; 4(2): 4 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1058505.
| Google Scholar |
23 Trochim W, Kane M. Concept mapping: an introduction to structured conceptualization in health care. Int J Qual Health Care 2005; 17(3): 187-191.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
24 Pines JM, Lotrecchiano GR, Zocchi MS, et al. A conceptual model for episodes of acute, unscheduled care. Ann Emerg Med 2016; 68(4): 484-491.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
25 Venn JI. On the diagrammatic and mechanical representation of propositions and reasonings. Lond Edinb Dubl Phil Mag J Sci 1880; 10(59): 1-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
26 De George-Walker L, Tyler MA. Collaborative concept mapping: Connecting with research team capacities. Educ Res Int 2014; 2014: 836068.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
27 Peruzzi V, Torresan S, Cortiula F, et al. Unveiling the potential of Venn diagrams as a helpful tool for clinical reasoning: An illustrative case-based discussion. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol 2023; 52(6): 478-481.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
28 Jia A, Xu L, Wang Y. Venn diagrams in bioinformatics. Brief Bioinform 2021; 22(5): bbab108.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
29 Australasian College for Emergency Medicine. What is emergency medicine? 2024. Available at https://acem.org.au/Content-Sources/About/What-is-emergency-medicine [accessed 3 December 2024].
30 World Health Organisation. Emergency and critical care. 2024. Available at https://www.who.int/health-topics/emergency-care#tab=tab_1 [accessed 3 December 2024].
31 World Health Organisation. Primary care. 2024. Available at https://www.who.int/teams/integrated-health-services/clinical-services-and-systems/primary-care#:~:text=Primary%20care%20is%20a%20model,and%20coordinated%20person%2Dfocused%20care [accessed 2 December 2024].
32 Weinick RM, Bristol SJ, Desroches CM. Urgent care centers in the U.S.: Findings from a national survey. BMC Health Serv Res 2009; 9: 79.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
33 Mehta S, Gardner K, Hall J, et al. Virtual urgent care is here to stay: driving toward safe, equitable, and sustainable integration within emergency medicine. CJEM 2024; 26(5): 305-311.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
34 Potter J, Watson Gans D, Gardner A, O’Neill J, Watkins C, Husain I. Using virtual emergency medicine clinicians as a health system entry point (virtual first): Cross-sectional survey study. J Med Internet Res 2023; 25: e42840.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
35 Neves AL, Li E, Gupta PP, Fontana G, Darzi A. Virtual primary care in high-income countries during the COVID-19 pandemic: Policy responses and lessons for the future. Eur J Gen Pract 2021; 27(1): 241-247.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
36 Raidla A, Darro K, Carlson T, Khorram-Manesh A, Berlin J, Carlström E. Outcomes of establishing an urgent care centre in the same location as an emergency department. Sustainability 2020; 12(19): 8190.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
37 American College of Emergency Physicians. Emergency department crowding: high impact solutions. 2016. Available at https://www.acep.org/siteassets/sites/acep/media/crowding/empc_crowding-ip_092016.pdf [accessed 29 April 2024].
38 Gnani S, Ramzan F, Ladbrooke T, et al. Evaluation of a general practitioner-led urgent care centre in an urban setting: description of service model and plan of analysis. JRSM Short Rep 2013; 4(6): 2042533313486263.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
39 Morton K, Voss S, Adamson J, et al. General practitioners and emergency departments (GPED) – Efficient models of care: A mixed-methods study protocol. BMJ Open 2018; 8(10): e024012.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
40 Ablard S, O’Keeffe C, Ramlakhan S, Mason SM. Primary care services co-located with emergency departments across a UK region: early views on their development. Emerg Med J 2017; 34(10): 672-676.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
41 Hollander JE, Pines JM. Urgent care centers: an alternative to unscheduled primary care and emergency department care. In: Wiler JL, Pines JM, Ward MJ, editors. Value and Quality Innovations in Acute and Emergency Care. Cambridge University Press; 2017. pp. 118–122. 10.1017/9781316779965.015
42 Medical Council of New Zealand. Urgent Care Medicine. 2025. Available at https://www.mcnz.org.nz/registration/scopes-of-practice/vocational-and-provisional-vocational/types-of-vocational-scope/urgent-care-medicine/ [accessed 30 March 2025].
43 National Urgent Care Center Accreditation. Classification of urgent care centers. Available at http://ucaccreditation.org/classification-of-uccs.html [accessed 23 March 2025].
44 Urgent Care Association. About UCA. 2025. Available at https://urgentcareassociation.org/about/ [accessed 30 June 2025].
45 The Joint Commission. Explore Urgent/Immediate Care Center Accreditation. 2025. Available at https://www.jointcommission.org/what-we-offer/accreditation/health-care-settings/ambulatory-health-care/learn/accreditation-options-certifications/explore-urgent-immediate-care-center-accreditation/ [accessed 25 June 2025].
46 National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA). Virtual Care Accreditation. 2025. Available at https://www.ncqa.org/programs/health-care-providers-practices/virtual-primary-care-and-urgent-care-accreditation/ [accessed 25 June 2025].
47 Accreditation Association for Ambulatory Health Care Inc. Accreditation for Primary Care Providers. AAAHC. 2025. Available at https://www.aaahc.org/accreditation/primary-care/ [accessed 15 June 2025].
48 Center for Improvement in Healthcare Quality. Free-Standing Emergency Center Accreditation Program. 2025. Available at https://cihq.org/fsec.asp [accessed 15 June 2025].
49 Gonçalves-Bradley D, Khangura JK, Flodgren G, Perera R, Rowe BH, Shepperd S. Primary care professionals providing non-urgent care in hospital emergency departments. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2022; 2(2): Cd002097.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
50 Edwards M, Cooper A, Davies F, et al. Emergency department clinical leads’ experiences of implementing primary care services where GPs work in or alongside emergency departments in the UK: a qualitative study. BMC Emerg Med 2020; 20(1): 62.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
51 Lalani M, Marshall M. Co-location, an enabler for service integration? Lessons from an evaluation of integrated community care teams in East London. Health Soc Care Community 2022; 30(2): e388-e396.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
52 Sturgeon D. Convenience, quality and choice: Patient and service-provider perspectives for treating primary care complaints in urgent care settings. Int Emerg Nurs 2017; 35: 43-50.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
53 Hoff T, Prout K. Comparing retail clinics with other sites of care: A systematic review of cost, quality, and patient satisfaction. Med Care 2019; 57(9): 734-741.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
54 Vader K, Donnelly C, French SD, et al. Implementing a new physiotherapist-led primary care model for low back pain: a qualitative study of patient and primary care team perspectives. BMC Prim Care 2022; 23(1): 201.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
55 Little Spurs Pediatric Urgent Care. Little Spurs Pediatric Urgent Care: Expert pediatric care. 2025. Available at https://littlespurspedi.com/ [accessed 5 May 2025].
56 Moss P, Newcomb D. Implementing the first paediatric minor injury and illness clinic within an Australian tertiary hospital. Int J Integr Care 2024; 24: 207.
| Google Scholar |
57 Anderson TJ, Althausen PL. The role of dedicated musculoskeletal urgent care centers in reducing cost and improving access to orthopaedic care. J Orthop Trauma 2016; 30: S3-S6.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
58 Hogencamp TC, Montalbano A. The new medical neighborhood – where does pediatric urgent care fit in? Clin Pediatr Emerg Med 2017; 18(1): 4-13.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
59 Olesen F, Dickinson J, Hjortdahl P. General practice—time for a new definition. BMJ 2000; 320(7231): 354-357.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
60 Justesen K, Smith JD, Swanson K, Yeazel M, Pacala JT. Michelle’s story: The complexity of patient care in a family medicine residency clinic. Ann Fam Med 2021; 19(4): 362-364.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
61 Foster H, Moffat KR, Burns N, Gannon M, Macdonald S, O’Donnell CA. What do we know about demand, use and outcomes in primary care out-of-hours services? A systematic scoping review of international literature. BMJ Open 2020; 10(1): e033481.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
62 Australasian College for Emergency Medicine. Statement on emergency department overcrowding position statement S57. 2021. Available at https://acem.org.au/getmedia/dd609f9a-9ead-473d-9786-d5518cc58298/S57-Statement-on-ED-Overcrowding-Jul-11-v02.aspx [accessed 3 July 2024].
63 Faber J, Coomes J, Reinemann M, Carlson JN. Creating a rapid assessment zone with limited emergency department capacity decreases patients leaving without being seen: A quality improvement initiative. J Emerg Nurs 2023; 49(1): 86-98.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
64 Truter P, Flanagan P, Waller R, et al. Short waits, happy patients and expert care, moving basic musculoskeletal care from the emergency department to a physiotherapist‐led diversion pathway. Emerg Med Australas 2024; 36(5): 695-702.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
65 McDonough A, Lennox A, Angus M, Coumbarides A. An analysis of the utility, effectiveness and scope of advanced physiotherapy practitioners in an urgent treatment centre pilot. Physiotherapy 2022; 115: 61-65.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
66 NHS England. Urgent treatment centres. Available at https://www.england.nhs.uk/urgent-emergency-care/urgent-treatment-centres/ [accessed 23 March 2025].
67 Motulsky A, Weir DL, Liang M, et al. Patient-initiated consultations in community pharmacies. Res Social Adm Pharm 2021; 17(2): 428-440.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
68 Australian Government Services Australia. Medicare Urgent Care Clinics and other urgent care initiatives. 2024. Available at https://hpe.servicesaustralia.gov.au/INFO/UCC/UCCINFO7.pdf [accessed 24 March 2025].
69 Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care. Operational guidance for urgent care clinics. 2022. Available at https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/2024-03/medicare-ucc-operational-guidance.pdf [accessed 24 March 2025].
70 Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care. GP super clinics programme. 2023. Available at https://www.health.gov.au/our-work/gp-super-clinics-programme [accessed 25 March 2025].
71 Australian National Audit Office. Administration of the GP super clinics program. 2013. Available at https://www.anao.gov.au/work/performance-audit/administration-the-gp-super-clinics-program [accessed 25 March 2025].
72 Heal Urgent Care. Heal Specialist Urgent Care. 2025. Available at https://www.healurgentcare.com.au/ [accessed 25 March 2025].
73 WiSE Specialist Emergency. Walk in specialist emergency clinic. 2025. Available at https://www.wisemedical.com.au/ [accessed 25 March 2025].
74 Queensland Government. Satellite health centres (formerly satellite hospitals). 2025. Available at https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/satellite-health-centres [accessed 23 March 2025].
75 Queensland Health. Satellite health centres (formerly satellite hospitals). 2025. Available at https://www.health.qld.gov.au/system-governance/strategic-direction/improving-service/satellite-health-centres [accessed 25 March 2025].
76 Queensland Government. Nurse-led walk-in clinics. 2025. Available at https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/community-health/nurse-led-walk-in-clinics [accessed 23 March 2025].
77 Angel Urgent Care. Angel Urgent Care Brisbane. 2025. Available at https://www.urgentcarebne.com.au/ [accessed 25 March 2025]
78 Women’s and Children’s Health Network. Child and Adolescent Virtual Urgent Care. Government of South Australia. 2022. Available at https://www.wch.sa.gov.au/patients-visitors/emergencies/virtual-urgent-care [accessed 10 June 2025].
79 Better Health Channel. Urgent care clinics. 2025. Available at https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/urgent-care-clinics [accessed 25 March 2025].
80 Victorian Health Building Authority. Community hospitals program. 2024. Available at https://www.vhba.vic.gov.au/health/community-based-care/community-hospitals-program
81 WA Primary Health Alliance. Country WA PHN activity work plan – Medicare Urgent Care Clinics program summary view 2023/2024 – 2026/2027. 2024. Available at https://www.wapha.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/June-2024_AWP_Medicare-Urgent-Care-Clinics_CWAPHN_2023-24-to-2026-27.pdf [accessed 23 March 2025].
82 Healthdirect Australia. GP Urgent Care clinics in WA. 2025. Available at https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/australian-health-services/urgent-care [accessed 25 March 2025].
83 Royal Australian College of General Practitioners. Position statement: After-hours services in primary healthcare. 2025. Available at https://www.racgp.org.au/advocacy/position-statements/view-all-position-statements/health-systems-and-environmental/after-hours-services-in-primary-healthcare [accessed 26 March 2025].
84 Government of Western Australia. New expanded role for community pharmacies introduced in WA. 2024. Available at https://www.wa.gov.au/government/media-statements/Cook-Labor-Government/New-expanded-role-for-community-pharmacies-introduced-in-WA-20240809 [accessed 26 March 2025].
85 Guo B, Corabian P, Yan C, Tjosvold L. Community paramedicine: program characteristics and evaluation. IHE Report. Institute of Health Economics; 2017. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549085/ [accessed 25 March 2025].
86 Healthdirect Australia. Free Australian health advice you can count on. 2025. Available at https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/ [accessed 25 March 2025].
87 My Emergency Doctor. Pioneering virtual healthcare solutions. 2025. Available at https://www.myemergencydr.com/ [accessed 25 March 2025].
