Register      Login
Wildlife Research Wildlife Research Society
Ecology, management and conservation in natural and modified habitats
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Lessons from long-term predator control: a case study with the red fox

Roger Kirkwood A C , Duncan R. Sutherland A D , Stuart Murphy B and Peter Dann A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, PO Box 97, Cowes, Vic. 3922, Australia.

B Environment Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, PO Box 97, Cowes, Vic. 3922, Australia.

C Present address: IMARES Wageningen University Research, PO Box 167, 1790 AD Den Berg, Texel, The Netherlands.

D Corresponding author. Email: dsutherland@penguins.org.au

Wildlife Research 41(3) 222-232 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR13196
Submitted: 18 November 2013  Accepted: 23 July 2014   Published: 26 August 2014

Abstract

Context: Predator-control aims to reduce an impact on prey species, but efficacy of long-term control is rarely assessed and the reductions achieved are rarely quantified.

Aims: We evaluated the changing efficacy of a 58-year-long campaign against red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) on Phillip Island, a 100-km2 inhabited island connected to the Australian mainland via a bridge. The campaign aimed to eliminate the impact of foxes on ground-nesting birds, particularly little penguins (Eudyptula minor).

Methods: We monitored the success rate of each fox-control technique employed, the level of effort invested if available, demographics of killed foxes, the numbers of penguins killed by foxes and penguin population size.

Key results: The campaign began as a bounty system that ran for 30 years and was ineffective. It transitioned into a coordinated, although localised, control program from 1980 to 2005 that invested considerable effort, but relied on subjective assessments of success. Early during the control period, baiting was abandoned for less effective methods that were thought to pose fewer risks, were more enjoyable and produced carcasses, a tangible result. Control was aided by a high level of public awareness, by restricted fox immigration, and by a clear, achievable and measurable target, namely, to prevent little penguin predation by foxes. Carcasses did prove valuable for research, revealing the genetic structure and shifts in fox demographics. The failure of the program was evident after scientific evaluation of fox population size and ongoing fox impacts. In 2006, the campaign evolved into an eradication attempt, adopting regular island-wide baiting, and since then, has achieved effective knock-down of foxes and negligible predation on penguins.

Conclusions: Effective predator control was achieved only after employing a dedicated team and implementing broad-scale baiting. Abandoning widespread baiting potentially delayed effective control for 25 years. Furthermore, both predator and prey populations should be monitored concurrently because the relationship between predator abundance and impact on prey species is not necessarily density dependent.

Implications: Critical to adopting the best management strategy is evaluating the efficacy of different methods independently of personal and public biases and having personnel dedicated solely to the task.

Additional keywords: eradication, Vulpes vulpes, wildlife management.


References

Abbott, I. (2011). The importation, release, establishment, spread, and early impact on prey animals of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in Victoria and adjoining parts of south-eastern Australia. Australian Zoologist 35, 463–533.
The importation, release, establishment, spread, and early impact on prey animals of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in Victoria and adjoining parts of south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Adkins, C. A., and Stott, P. (1998). Home ranges, movements and habitat associations of red foxes Vulpes vulpes in suburban Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Journal of Zoology 244, 335–346.
Home ranges, movements and habitat associations of red foxes Vulpes vulpes in suburban Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Algar, D., and Smith, R. (1998). Approaching Eden. Landscope 13, 28–34.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013). ‘2011 Census QuickStats: Phillip Island.’ Available at http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/205031091 [verified 24 October 2013].

Baker, S. (2006). The eradication of coypus (Myocastor coypus) from Britain: the elements required for a successful campaign. In ‘Assessment and Control of Biological Invasion Risks’. (Eds F. Koike, M. N. Clout, M. Kawamichi, M. De Poorter and K. Iwatsuki.) pp. 142–147. (IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.)

Banks, P. B., Dickman, C. R., and Newsome, A. E. (1998). Ecological costs of feral predator control: foxes and rabbits. The Journal of Wildlife Management 62, 766–772.
Ecological costs of feral predator control: foxes and rabbits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Berry, O., and Kirkwood, R. (2010). Measuring recruitment in an invasive species to determine eradication potential. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 1661–1670.
Measuring recruitment in an invasive species to determine eradication potential.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Berry, O., Algar, D., Angus, J., Hamilton, N., Hilmer, S., and Sutherland, D. R. (2012). Genetic tagging reveals a significant impact of poison baiting on an invasive species. The Journal of Wildlife Management 76, 729–739.
Genetic tagging reveals a significant impact of poison baiting on an invasive species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Braastad, B. O., Osadchuk, L. V., Lund, G., and Bakken, M. (1998). Effects of prenatal handling stress on adrenal weight and function and behaviour in novel situations in blue fox cubs (Alopex lagopus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 57, 157–169.
Effects of prenatal handling stress on adrenal weight and function and behaviour in novel situations in blue fox cubs (Alopex lagopus).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Burbidge, A. A., and Morris, K. D. (2004). Introduced mammal eradications for nature conservation on Western Australian islands: a review. In ‘The Domestic Cat: the Biology of Its Behaviour’. (Eds D. C. Turner and P. G. Bateson.) pp. 64–70. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)

Cavallini, P. (1996). Variation in the social system of the red fox. Ethology Ecology and Evolution 8, 323–342.
Variation in the social system of the red fox.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coman, B. J. (1988). The age structure of a sample of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) taken by hunters in Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 223–229.
The age structure of a sample of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) taken by hunters in Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coman, B. J., Robinson, J., and Beaumont, C. (1991). Home range, dispersal and density of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) in central Victoria. Wildlife Research 18, 215–224.
Home range, dispersal and density of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) in central Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J. L., and Pascal, M. (2003). Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 78, 347–383.
Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14558589PubMed |

Dann, P. (1992). Distribution, population trends and factors influencing the population size of little penguins Eudyptula minor on Phillip Island, Victoria. Emu 91, 263–272.
Distribution, population trends and factors influencing the population size of little penguins Eudyptula minor on Phillip Island, Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dickman, C. R. (1996). Impact of exotic generalist predators on the native fauna of Australia. Wildlife Biology 2, 185–195.

Ebbert, S. E., and Byrd, G. V. (2002). Eradications of invasive species to restore natural biological diversity on Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge. In ‘Turning the Tide: the Eradication of Invasive Species. Vol. 27’. (Eds C. R. Veitch and M. N. Clout.) pp. 102–109. (IUCN Species Survival Commission: Gland, Switzerland.)

Field, S. A., Tyre, A. J., Thorn, K. H., O’Connor, P. J., and Possingham, H. P. (2005). Improving the efficiency of wildlife monitoring by estimating detectability: a case study of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) on the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. Wildlife Research 32, 253–258.
Improving the efficiency of wildlife monitoring by estimating detectability: a case study of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) on the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fleming, P. J. S. (1997). Uptake of baits by red foxes (Vulpes vulpes): implications for rabies contingency planning in Australia. Wildlife Research 24, 335–346.
Uptake of baits by red foxes (Vulpes vulpes): implications for rabies contingency planning in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gabriel, J. (1919). On the destruction of mutton-birds and penguins at Phillip Island. Victorian Naturalist 35, 178–180.

Glidden, J. W. (1968). ‘Phillip Island in Picture and Story.’ (Wilke and Co. Ltd: Melbourne.)

Goszczynski, J. (1989). Spatial distribution of red foxes Vulpes vulpes in winter. Acta Theriologica 34, 361–372.
Spatial distribution of red foxes Vulpes vulpes in winter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Greentree, C., Saunders, G., McLeod, L., and Hone, J. (2000). Lamb predation and fox control in south-eastern Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 37, 935–943.
Lamb predation and fox control in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Grue, H., and Jensen, B. (1973). Annular structures in canine tooth cementum in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) of known age. Danish Review of Game Biology 8, 1–12.

Harding, E. K., Doak, D. F., and Albertson, J. D. (2001). Evaluating the effectiveness of predator control: the non-native red fox as a case study. Conservation Biology 15, 1114–1122.
Evaluating the effectiveness of predator control: the non-native red fox as a case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harris, S. (1978). Age determination in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) – an evaluation of technique efficiency as applied to a sample of suburban foxes. Journal of Zoology 184, 91–117.
Age determination in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) – an evaluation of technique efficiency as applied to a sample of suburban foxes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harris, S. (1979). Age related fertility and productivity on red foxes, Vulpes vulpes, in suburban London. Journal of Zoology 187, 195–199.
Age related fertility and productivity on red foxes, Vulpes vulpes, in suburban London.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harris, S. (1981). An estimation of the number of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in the city of Bristol, and some possible factors affecting their distribution. Journal of Applied Ecology 18, 455–465.
An estimation of the number of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in the city of Bristol, and some possible factors affecting their distribution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harris, M. P., and Bode, K. G. (1981). Populations of little penguins, short-tailed shearwaters and other seabirds on Phillip Island, Victoria. Emu 81, 20–28.
Populations of little penguins, short-tailed shearwaters and other seabirds on Phillip Island, Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Harris, S., and Smith, G. C. (1987). Demography of two urban fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations. Journal of Applied Ecology 24, 75–86.
Demography of two urban fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heydon, M. J., and Reynolds, J. C. (2000). Demography of rural foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in relation to cull intensity in three contrasting regions of Britain. Journal of Zoology 251, 265–276.
Demography of rural foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in relation to cull intensity in three contrasting regions of Britain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heydon, M. J., Reynolds, J. C., and Short, M. J. (2000). Variation in abundance of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) between three regions of rural Britain, in relation to landscape and other variables. Journal of Zoology 251, 253–264.
Variation in abundance of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) between three regions of rural Britain, in relation to landscape and other variables.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Island Conservation (2012). ‘Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications.’ Available at berrhttp://eradicationsdb.fos.auckland.ac.nz/. [Verified 11/4/2014]

Johnston, D. H., and Watt, I. (1980). A rapid method for sectioning undecalcified carnivore teeth for aging, In ‘The Worldwide Furbearer Conference Proceedings’. Vol. 1. (Eds J. A. Chapman and D. Pursley.) pp. 407–421. (Frostburg, MD.)

Kinnear, J. E., Onus, M. L., and Bromilow, R. N. (1988). Fox control and rock-wallaby population dynamics. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 435–450.
Fox control and rock-wallaby population dynamics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kinnear, J. E., Onus, M. L., and Sumner, N. R. (1998). Fox control and rock-wallaby population dynamics – an update. Wildlife Research 25, 81–88.
Fox control and rock-wallaby population dynamics – an update.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kinnear, J. E., Sumner, N. R., and Onus, M. L. (2002). The red fox in Australia – an exotic predator turned biocontrol agent. Biological Conservation 108, 335–359.
The red fox in Australia – an exotic predator turned biocontrol agent.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kirkwood, R., Dann, P., and Belvedere, M. (2000). Effects of the seasonal availability of short tailed shearwaters (Puffinus tenuirostris) on the diet of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) on Phillip Island, Victoria. Australian Mammalogy 22, 87–92.

Kirkwood, R., Dann, P., and Belvedere, M. (2005). A comparison of the diets of feral cats (Felis catus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) on Phillip Island, Victoria. Australian Mammalogy 27, 89–93.
A comparison of the diets of feral cats (Felis catus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) on Phillip Island, Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kohn, M. H., York, E. C., Kamradt, D. A., Haught, G., Sauvajot, R. M., and Wayne, R. K. (1999). Estimating population size by genotyping faeces. Proceedings. Biological Sciences 266, 657–663.
Estimating population size by genotyping faeces.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK1M3mtFKksA%3D%3D&md5=2830488f8641fe1d69e77d6039ce1793CAS |

Kurki, S., Nikula, A., Helle, P., and Linden, H. (1998). Abundances of red fox and pine marten in relation to the composition of boreal forest landscapes. Journal of Animal Ecology 67, 874–886.
Abundances of red fox and pine marten in relation to the composition of boreal forest landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lade, J. A., Murray, N. D., Marks, C. A., and Robinson, N. A. (1996). Microsatellite differentiation between Phillip Island and mainland Australian populations of the red fox Vulpes vulpes. Molecular Ecology 5, 81–87.
Microsatellite differentiation between Phillip Island and mainland Australian populations of the red fox Vulpes vulpes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2Fns12ktQ%3D%3D&md5=b25266779f54cf1e1b88a91a304707e3CAS | 9147696PubMed |

Lloyd, H. G. (1980). ‘The Red Fox.’ (B. T. Batsford Ltd: London.)

Lokemoen, J. T., and Woodward, R. O. (1993). An assessment of predator barriers and predator control to enhance duck nest success on peninsulas. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21, 275–282.

Mann, T. L. J. (1968). A comparison of lamb survival in fox proof and unprotected enclosures. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 7, 250–254.

Marks, C. A., and Bloomfield, T. E. (1999). Distribution and density estimates for urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Melbourne: implications for rabies control. Wildlife Research 26, 763–775.
Distribution and density estimates for urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Melbourne: implications for rabies control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C., Nijk, M., Gigliotti, F., Busana, F., and Short, R. (1996). Preliminary field assessment of a cabergoline baiting campaign for reproductive control of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Wildlife Research 23, 161–168.
Preliminary field assessment of a cabergoline baiting campaign for reproductive control of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C. A., Busana, F., and Gigliotti, F. (1999). Assessment of the M-44 ejector for the delivery of 1080 for red fox (Vulpes vulpes) control. Wildlife Research 26, 109–109.
Assessment of the M-44 ejector for the delivery of 1080 for red fox (Vulpes vulpes) control.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marks, C. A., Gigliotti, F., McPhee, S., Piggott, M. P., Taylor, A., and Glen, A. S. (2009). DNA genotypes reveal red fox (Vulpes vulpes) abundance, response to lethal control and limitations of contemporary survey techniques. Wildlife Research 36, 647–658.
DNA genotypes reveal red fox (Vulpes vulpes) abundance, response to lethal control and limitations of contemporary survey techniques.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McLean, S., Brandon, S., and Kirkwood, R. (2007). Stability of cabergoline in fox baits in laboratory and field conditions. Wildlife Research 34, 239–246.
Stability of cabergoline in fox baits in laboratory and field conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXms12isbk%3D&md5=2f1e9ba4806b4b59b50b9903d3370edcCAS |

McLeod, R. (2004). ‘Counting the Cost: Impact of Invasive Animals in Australia, 2004.’ (Cooperative Research Centre for Pest Animal Control: Canberra.)

Meek, P. D., Jenkins, D. J., Morris, B., Ardler, A. J., and Hawksby, R. J. (1995). Use of two humane leg-hold traps for catching pest species. Wildlife Research 22, 733–739.
Use of two humane leg-hold traps for catching pest species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morrison, S. A., Macdonald, N., Walker, K., Lozier, L., and Shaw, M. R. (2007). Facing the dilemma at eradication’s end: uncertainty of absence and the Lazarus effect. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5, 271–276.
Facing the dilemma at eradication’s end: uncertainty of absence and the Lazarus effect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Norman, F. I. (1971). Predation by the fox (Vulpes vulpes L.) on colonies of the short-tailed shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostris Temminck) in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 8, 21–32.
Predation by the fox (Vulpes vulpes L.) on colonies of the short-tailed shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostris Temminck) in Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paxinos, E., McIntosh, C., Ralls, K., and Fleischer, R. (1997). A noninvasive method for distinguishing among canid species: amplification and enzyme restriction of DNA from dung. Molecular Ecology 6, 483–486.
A noninvasive method for distinguishing among canid species: amplification and enzyme restriction of DNA from dung.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXjsFOhs78%3D&md5=a109e5560ee0840ee22611e6145f6d21CAS | 9161016PubMed |

Piggott, M. P., Wilson, R., Banks, S. C., Marks, C. A., Gigliotti, F., and Taylor, A. C. (2008). Evaluating exotic predator control programs using non-invasive genetic tagging. Wildlife Research 35, 617–624.
Evaluating exotic predator control programs using non-invasive genetic tagging.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Priddel, D., and Wheeler, R. (1997). Efficacy of fox control in reducing the mortality of released captive-reared malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata. Wildlife Research 24, 469–482.
Efficacy of fox control in reducing the mortality of released captive-reared malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Risbey, D. A., Calver, M., Short, J., Bradley, J., and Wright, I. (2000). The impact of cats and foxes on the small vertebrate fauna of Heirisson Prong, Western Australia. II. A field experiement. Wildlife Research 27, 223–235.
The impact of cats and foxes on the small vertebrate fauna of Heirisson Prong, Western Australia. II. A field experiement.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rolls, E. C. (1969). ‘They All Ran Wild.’ (Angus and Robertson: Sydney.)

Rout, T. M., Kirkwood, R., Sutherland, D. R., Murphy, S., and McCarthy, M. A. (2014). When to declare successful eradication of an invasive predator. Animal Conservation 17, 125–132.
When to declare successful eradication of an invasive predator.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rowley, I. (1970). Lamb predation in Australia: incidence, predisposing conditions and the identification of wounds. Wildlife Research 15, 79–123.
Lamb predation in Australia: incidence, predisposing conditions and the identification of wounds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Saunders, G., and McLeod, L. (2007). ‘Improving Fox Management Strategies in Australia.’ (Bureau of Rural Sciences: Canberra.)

Saunders, G., Coman, B., Kinnear, J., and Braysher, M. (1995). ‘Managing Vertebrate Pests: Foxes.’ (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra.)

Saunders, G. R., Gentle, M. N., and Dickman, C. R. (2010). The impacts and management of foxes Vulpes vulpes in Australia. Mammal Review 40, 181–211.
The impacts and management of foxes Vulpes vulpes in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sharp, A., Norton, M., Marks, A., and Holmes, K. (2001). An evaluation of two indices of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) abundance in an arid environment. Wildlife Research 28, 419–424.
An evaluation of two indices of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) abundance in an arid environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sidhu, L. A., Catchpole, E. A., and Dann, P. (2007). Mark-recapture-recovery modelling and age-related survival in little penguins Eudyptula minor. The Auk 124, 815–827.
Mark-recapture-recovery modelling and age-related survival in little penguins Eudyptula minor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sutherland, D. R., and Dann, P. (2012). Improving accuracy of population size estimates for burrow nesting seabirds. The Ibis 154, 488–498.
Improving accuracy of population size estimates for burrow nesting seabirds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sutherland, D. R., and Dann, P. (2014). Population trends in a substantial colony of little penguins: three independent measures over three decades. Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 241–250.
Population trends in a substantial colony of little penguins: three independent measures over three decades.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Thompson, P. C., and Fleming, P. J. S. (1994). Evaluation of the efficacy of 1080 poisoning of red foxes using visitation to non-toxic baits as an index of fox abundance. Wildlife Research 21, 27–40.
Evaluation of the efficacy of 1080 poisoning of red foxes using visitation to non-toxic baits as an index of fox abundance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Trewhella, W. J., Harris, S., and McAllister, F. E. (1988). Dispersal distance, home-range size and population density in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes): a quantitative analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 25, 423–434.
Dispersal distance, home-range size and population density in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes): a quantitative analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Trewhella, W. J., Harris, S., Smith, G. C., and Nadan, A. K. (1991). A field trial evaluating bait uptake by an urban fox (Vulpes vulpes) population. Journal of Applied Ecology 28, 454–466.
A field trial evaluating bait uptake by an urban fox (Vulpes vulpes) population.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Trut, L. N. (1999). Early canid domestication: the farm-fox experiment. American Scientist 87, 160–169.
Early canid domestication: the farm-fox experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Turro-Vincent, I., Launay, F., Mills, A. D., Picard, M., and Faure, J. M. (1995). Experiential and genetic influences on learnt food aversions in Japanese quail selected for high or low levels of fearfulness. Behavioural Processes 34, 23–41.
Experiential and genetic influences on learnt food aversions in Japanese quail selected for high or low levels of fearfulness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2cjpslGjtg%3D%3D&md5=c64816142400f7955f004c1cf87fef80CAS | 24897246PubMed |

van Polanen Petel, A. M., Marks, C. A., and Morgan, D. G. (2001). Bait palatability influences the caching behaviour of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Wildlife Research 28, 395–401.
Bait palatability influences the caching behaviour of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

van Polanen Petel, A. M., Kirkwood, R., Gigliotti, F., and Marks, C. (2004). Adaptation and assessment of M-44 ejectors in a fox-control program on Phillip Island, Victoria. Wildlife Research 31, 143–147.
Adaptation and assessment of M-44 ejectors in a fox-control program on Phillip Island, Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Voigt, D. E., and Macdonald, D. W. (1984). Variation in the spatial and social behaviour of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes. Acta Zoologica Fennica 171, 261–265.

Webbon, C., Baker, P. J., and Harris, S. (2004). Faecal density counts for monitoring changes in red fox numbers in rural Britain. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 768–779.
Faecal density counts for monitoring changes in red fox numbers in rural Britain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |