Stocktake Sale on now: wide range of books at up to 70% off!
Register      Login
Pacific Conservation Biology Pacific Conservation Biology Society
A journal dedicated to conservation and wildlife management in the Pacific region.
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Genetic viability of a reintroduced population of south-western common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula hypoleucus), Western Australia

Lara Semple https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4084-4075 A B G , Kym Ottewell C D , Colleen Sims E , Henner Simianer F and Margaret Byrne https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7197-5409 C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Faculty of Biology and Psychology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany.

B Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, Canterbury, New Zealand.

C Biodiversity and Conservation Science, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Locked Bag 104, Bentley Delivery Centre, WA 6983, Australia.

D Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.

E Science and Conservation, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Wildlife Place, Woodvale, WA 6026, Australia.

F Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.

G Corresponding author. Email: semplelara@gmail.com

Pacific Conservation Biology 26(3) 282-292 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC19031
Submitted: 12 August 2019  Accepted: 13 March 2020   Published: 7 May 2020

Abstract

This study focused on a reintroduced population of south-western common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula hypoleucus) to assess genetic variability and inform future management strategies. Individuals were translocated to Matuwa Kurarra-Kurarra Indigenous Protected Area, Western Australia, from four source populations, but subsequent monitoring has indicated a 50% reduction in population size from original founder numbers in the eight years since establishment. Tissue samples from three of the four source populations and an additional four comparative sites (n = 140 animals total) were analysed using 13 microsatellite loci. Inbreeding was lower and heterozygosity was higher in the translocated Matuwa population than in two of the source populations studied, highlighting the benefits of promoting outbreeding through the use of multiple source populations in translocations. However, allelic richness at Matuwa is low relative to two of the source populations, suggesting the impact of population bottlenecks on genetic diversity, which was supported by significant allele frequency mode shift and Wilcoxon rank sign test for heterozygosity excess tests for genetic bottlenecks. Despite the genetic health of the population being stronger than predicted, this population is still at risk due to environmental factors, small size and fragmentation. This is the first study to document patterns of genetic diversity and to highlight issues with translocation for this subspecies and adds to the limited literature illustrating how outbreeding can be used for conservation purposes.

Additional keywords: common brushtail possum, genetic bottleneck, major histocompatibility complex, marsupial, Matuwa.


References

Algar, D., Onus, M., and Hamilton, N. (2013). Feral cat control as part of Rangelands Restoration at Lorna Glen (Matuwa), Western Australia: the first seven years. Conservation Science Western Australia 8, 367–381.

Avise, J. C. (2010). ‘Molecular Ecology and Evolution: The Organismal Side: Selected Writings from the Avise Laboratory.’ (World Scientific: University of California, US.)

Ballardie, R. T., and Whelan, R. J. (1986). Masting, seed dispersal and seed predation in the cycad Macrozamia communis. Oecologia 70, 100–105.
Masting, seed dispersal and seed predation in the cycad Macrozamia communis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28311292PubMed |

Banks, S. C., Dubach, J., Viggers, K. L., and Lindenmayer, D. B. (2010). Adult survival and microsatellite diversity in possums: effects of major histocompatibility complex-linked microsatellite diversity but not multilocus inbreeding estimators. Oecologia 162, 359–370.
Adult survival and microsatellite diversity in possums: effects of major histocompatibility complex-linked microsatellite diversity but not multilocus inbreeding estimators.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19830457PubMed |

Bannister, H. (2019). Release protocols and release environment: what influences reintroduction success for the brushtail possum? Ph.D. Thesis, University of Adelaide.

Belov, K., Deakin, J. E., Papenfuss, A. T., Baker, M. L., Melman, S. D., Siddle, H. V., Gouin, N., Goode, D. L., Sargent, T. J., Robinson, M. D., Wakefield, M. J., Mahony, S., Cross, J. G. R., Benos, P. V., Samollow, P. B., Speed, T. P., Marshall-Graves, J. A., and Miller, R. D. (2006). Reconstructing an ancestral mammalian immune supercomplex from a marsupial major histocompatibility complex. PLoS Biology 4, e46.
Reconstructing an ancestral mammalian immune supercomplex from a marsupial major histocompatibility complex.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16435885PubMed |

Blyton, M. D., Shaw, R., and Banks, S. C. (2014). Development of a powerful microsatellite marker panel for Trichosurus cunninghami. Conservation Genetics Resources 6, 95–97.
Development of a powerful microsatellite marker panel for Trichosurus cunninghami.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brussard, P. F., and Gilpin, M. E. (1989). ‘Demographic and Genetic Problems of Small Populations: Conservation Biology and the Black-footed Ferret.’ (Yale University Press: New Haven, CT.)

Burbidge, A. A., and McKenzie, N. L. (1989). Patterns in the modern decline of Western Australia’s vertebrate fauna: causes and conservation implications. Biological Conservation 50, 143–198.
Patterns in the modern decline of Western Australia’s vertebrate fauna: causes and conservation implications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Burbidge, A. A., Johnson, K. A., Fuller, P. J., and Southgate, R. I. (1988). Aboriginal knowledge of the mammals of the central deserts of Australia. Wildlife Research 15, 9–39.
Aboriginal knowledge of the mammals of the central deserts of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cardillo, M., and Bromham, L. (2001). Body size and risk of extinction in Australian mammals. Conservation Biology 15, 1435–1440.
Body size and risk of extinction in Australian mammals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chisholm, R. A., and Taylor, R. (2010). Body size and extinction risk in Australian mammals: an information‐theoretic approach. Austral Ecology 35, 616–623.
Body size and extinction risk in Australian mammals: an information‐theoretic approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Christensen, P., and Burrows, N. (1995). Project Desert Dreaming: experimental reintroduction of mammals to the Gibson Desert, Western Australia. In ‘Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna’. (Ed. M. Serena) pp. 199–207. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.)

Cooper, C. E., Withers, P. C., Munns, S. L., Geiser, F., and Buttemer, W. A. (2018). Geographical variation in the standard physiology of brushtail possums (Trichosurus): implications for conservation translocations. Conservation Physiology 6, coy042.
Geographical variation in the standard physiology of brushtail possums (Trichosurus): implications for conservation translocations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 30323932PubMed |

Cornuet, J. M., and Luikart, G. (1996). Description and power analysis of two tests for detecting recent population bottlenecks from allele frequency data. Genetics 144, 2001–2014.
| 8978083PubMed |

Cowan, P. E., Brockie, R. E., Smith, R. N., and Hearfield, M. E. (1997). Dispersal of juvenile brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, after a control operation. Wildlife Research 24, 279–288.
Dispersal of juvenile brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, after a control operation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Craig, M. D., and Roberts, J. D. (2005). The short-term impacts of logging on the jarrah forest avifauna in south-west Western Australia: implications for the design and analysis of logging experiments. Biological Conservation 124, 177–188.
The short-term impacts of logging on the jarrah forest avifauna in south-west Western Australia: implications for the design and analysis of logging experiments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cristescu, R., Sherwin, W. B., Handasyde, K., Cahill, V., and Cooper, D. W. (2010). Detecting bottlenecks using BOTTLENECK 1.2.02 in wild populations: the importance of the microsatellite structure. Conservation Genetics 11, 1043–1049.
Detecting bottlenecks using BOTTLENECK 1.2.02 in wild populations: the importance of the microsatellite structure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cruz, J., Sutherland, D. R., Martin, G. R., and Leung, L. K. P. (2012). Are smaller subspecies of common brushtail possums more omnivorous than larger ones? Austral Ecology 37, 893–902.
Are smaller subspecies of common brushtail possums more omnivorous than larger ones?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Curry, P. J., and Hacker, R. B. (1990). Can pastoral grazing management satisfy endorsed conservation objectives in arid Western Australia? Journal of Environmental Management 30, 295–320.
Can pastoral grazing management satisfy endorsed conservation objectives in arid Western Australia?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Dell, B., and Havel, J. J. (1989). The jarrah forest, an introduction. In ‘The Jarrah Forest: A Complex Mediterranean Ecosystem’. (Eds B. Dell, J. J. Havel, and N. Malajczuk) pp. 1–10. (Springer: Dordrecht, Netherlands.)

DEWHA (2008). Threat abatement plan for predation by the European red fox. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra.

Di Rienzo, A., Peterson, A. C., Garza, J. C., Valdes, A. M., Slatkin, M., and Freimer, N. B. (1994). Mutational processes of simple-sequence repeat loci in human populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91, 3166–3170.
Mutational processes of simple-sequence repeat loci in human populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 8159720PubMed |

Dickman, C. R. (2012). Fences or ferals? Benefits and costs of conservation fencing in Australia. In ‘Fencing for Conservation’. (Eds M. Somers and M. Hayward) pp. 43–63. (Springer: New York.)

Eldridge, W. H., and Killebrew, K. (2008). Genetic diversity over multiple generations of supplementation: an example from Chinook salmon using microsatellite and demographic data. Conservation Genetics 9, 13–28.
Genetic diversity over multiple generations of supplementation: an example from Chinook salmon using microsatellite and demographic data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Facka, A. N., Romer, G. W., Mathis, V. L., Kam, M., and Geffen, E. (2010). Drought leads to collapse of black-tailed prairie dog populations reintroduced to the Chihuahuan desert. The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 1752–1762.
Drought leads to collapse of black-tailed prairie dog populations reintroduced to the Chihuahuan desert.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fairweather, A. A. C., Brockie, R. E., and Ward, G. D. (1987). Possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) sharing dens: a potential infection route for bovine tuberculosis. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 35, 15–16.
Possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) sharing dens: a potential infection route for bovine tuberculosis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fleming, P. A., Anderson, H., Prendergast, A. S., Bretz, M. R., Valentine, L. E., and Hardy, G. E. (2014). Is the loss of Australian digging mammals contributing to a deterioration in ecosystem function? Mammal Review 44, 94–108.
Is the loss of Australian digging mammals contributing to a deterioration in ecosystem function?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Frankham, R. (1995). Inbreeding and extinction: a threshold effect. Conservation Biology 9, 792–799.
Inbreeding and extinction: a threshold effect.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Frankham, R. (2015). Genetic rescue of small inbred populations: meta‐analysis reveals large and consistent benefits of gene flow. Molecular Ecology 24, 2610–2618.
Genetic rescue of small inbred populations: meta‐analysis reveals large and consistent benefits of gene flow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25740414PubMed |

Franklin, I. R., Soulé, M. E., and Wilcox, B. A. (1980). ‘Conservation Biology: an Evolutionary-ecological Perspective.’ (Sinauer Associates: USA.)

Hall, J. A., and Walter, G. H. (2013). Seed dispersal of the Australian cycad Macrozamia miquelii (Zamiaceae): are cycads megafauna-dispersed “grove forming” plants? American Journal of Botany 100, 1127–1136.
Seed dispersal of the Australian cycad Macrozamia miquelii (Zamiaceae): are cycads megafauna-dispersed “grove forming” plants?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23711908PubMed |

How, R. A., and Hillcox, S. J. (2000). Brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, populations in south-western Australia: demography, diet and conservation status. Wildlife Research 27, 81–89.
Brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, populations in south-western Australia: demography, diet and conservation status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Inions, G. B., Tanton, M. T., and Davey, S. M. (1989). Effect of fire on the availability of hollows in trees used by the common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr, 1792, and the ringtail possum, Pseudocheirus peregrinus Boddaerts, 1785. Wildlife Research 16, 449–458.
Effect of fire on the availability of hollows in trees used by the common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr, 1792, and the ringtail possum, Pseudocheirus peregrinus Boddaerts, 1785.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

IUCN (2009). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Trichosurus vulpecula. Version 2009. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org [accessed 4 July 2016].

Jamieson, I. G., and Allendorf, F. W. (2012). How does the 50/500 rule apply to MVPs? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 27, 578–584.
How does the 50/500 rule apply to MVPs?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Johnson, C. N., and Isaac, J. L. (2009). Body mass and extinction risk in Australian marsupials: the ‘Critical Weight Range’ revisited. Austral Ecology 34, 35–40.
Body mass and extinction risk in Australian marsupials: the ‘Critical Weight Range’ revisited.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kalinowski, S. T. (2004). Counting alleles with rarefaction: private alleles and hierarchical sampling designs. Conservation Genetics 5, 539–543.
Counting alleles with rarefaction: private alleles and hierarchical sampling designs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kalinowski, S. T. (2005). HP‐rare 1.0: a computer program for performing rarefaction on measures of allelic richness. Molecular Ecology Notes 5, 187–189.
HP‐rare 1.0: a computer program for performing rarefaction on measures of allelic richness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kalinowski, S. T., Taper, M. L., and Marshall, T. C. (2007). Revising how the computer program CERVUS accommodates genotyping error increases success in paternity assignment. Molecular Ecology 16, 1099–1106.
Revising how the computer program CERVUS accommodates genotyping error increases success in paternity assignment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17305863PubMed |

Kerle, A. (1984). Variation in the ecology of Trichosurus: its adaptive significance. In ‘Possums and Gliders’. (Ed. A. P. Smith and I. D. Hume) pp. 115–126. (Surrey Beatty & Australian Mammal Society: Sydney.)

Kerle, A. (2001). ‘Possums: the Brushtails, Ringtails and Greater Glider.’ (UNSW Press: Sydney.)

Kerle, J. A., and How, R. A. (2008). Common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula. In ‘The Mammals of Australia’. (Eds S. Van Dyck and R. Strahan.) pp. 274–276. (Reed New Holland: Sydney.)

Kerle, A., Foulkes, J. N., Kimber, R. G., and Papenfus, D. (1992). The decline of the brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula (Kerr 1798), in arid Australia. The Rangeland Journal 14, 107–127.
The decline of the brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula (Kerr 1798), in arid Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lam, M. K., Hickson, R. E., Cowan, P. E., and Cooper, D. W. (2000). A major histocompatibility (MHC) microsatellite locus in brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Online Journal of Veterinary Research 4, 139–141.

Larson, S., Jameson, R., Bodkin, J., Staedler, M., and Bentzen, P. (2002). Microsatellite DNA and mitochondrial DNA variation in remnant and translocated sea otter (Enhydra lutris) populations. Journal of Mammalogy 83, 893–906.
Microsatellite DNA and mitochondrial DNA variation in remnant and translocated sea otter (Enhydra lutris) populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Le Page, S. L., Livermore, R. A., Cooper, D. W., and Taylor, A. C. (2000). Genetic analysis of a documented population bottleneck: introduced Bennett’s wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus) in New Zealand. Molecular Ecology 9, 753–763.
Genetic analysis of a documented population bottleneck: introduced Bennett’s wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus) in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 10849291PubMed |

Leberg, P. L. (1990). Genetic considerations in the design of introduction programs. In ‘55th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference - Special Session 11’. pp. 609–619. Available at: https://wildlife-management-institute.myshopify.com/products/transactions-of-the-55th-north-american-wildlife-and-natural-resources-conference [accessed 21 April 2020]

Letnic, M. (2007). The impacts of pastoralism on the fauna of arid Australia. In ‘Animals of Arid Australia: Out on their Own?’. pp. 65–75. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney.)

Macdonald, D. W. (2006). ‘The Encyclopedia of Mammals.’ (Oxford University Press: Oxford.)

Maguire, L. A., Seal, U. S., and Brussard, P. F. (1987). Managing critically endangered species: the Sumatran rhino as a case study. In ‘Viable Populations for Conservation’. (Ed. M. E. Soulé) pp. 141–158. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Marshall, T. C., Slate, J. B. K. E., Kruuk, L. E. B., and Pemberton, J. M. (1998). Statistical confidence for likelihood‐based paternity inference in natural populations. Molecular Ecology 7, 639–655.
Statistical confidence for likelihood‐based paternity inference in natural populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 9633105PubMed |

McCullough, D. R., Fischer, J. K., and Ballou, J. D. (1996). From bottleneck to metapopulation: recovery of the tule elk in California. In ‘Metapopulations and Wildlife Conservation’. (Ed. D. R. McCullough) pp. 375–403. (Island Press: USA.)

Mijangos, J. L., Pacioni, C., Spencer, P., and Craig, M. D. (2015). Contribution of genetics to ecological restoration. Molecular Ecology 24, 22–37.
Contribution of genetics to ecological restoration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25377524PubMed |

Miller, E., Dunlop, J., and Morris, K. (2010). Rangelands Restoration: Fauna Recovery at Lorna Glen, Western Australia: Progress Report August 2008–June 2010. Department of Environment and Conservation, Australia.

Millis, A. L. (2000). Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in marsupial gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis, P. breviceps and P. gracilis). Molecular Ecology 9, 1681–1683.
Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in marsupial gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis, P. breviceps and P. gracilis).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11050574PubMed |

Morris, K., Johnson, B., Rooney, J., and Ward, C. (2000). The short-term impacts of timber harvesting and associated activities on the abundance of medium-sized mammals in the jarrah forest of Western Australia. Nature Conservation 5, 60–70.

Morris, K., Orell, P., Cowan, M., and Broun, G. (2007). Reconstructing the mammal fauna of Lorna Glen in the rangelands of Western Australia 2006–2016. Unpublished report. Department of Environment and Conservation, Perth.

Morris, K., Page, M., Kay, R., Renwick, J., Desmond, A., Comer, S., Burbidge, A., Kuchling, G., and Sims, C. (2015). Forty years of fauna translocations in Western Australia: lessons learned. In ‘Advances in Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna’. (Eds D. Armstrong, M. Hayward, D. Moro, P. Seddon) pp. 217–235. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)

Morton, S. R. (1990). The impact of European settlement on the vertebrate animals of arid Australia: a conceptual model. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 201–213.

Moseby, K. E., and Read, J. L. (2006). The efficacy of feral cat, fox and rabbit exclusion fence designs for threatened species protection. Biological Conservation 127, 429–437.
The efficacy of feral cat, fox and rabbit exclusion fence designs for threatened species protection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

O’Brien, S. J., Martenson, J. S, Miththapala, S., Janczewski, D., Pecon-Slattery, J., Johnson, W., Gilbert, D. A., Roelke, M., Packer, C., Bush, M., Wildt, D. E. (1996). Conservation genetics of the Felidae. In ‘Conservation Genetics: Case Histories from Nature’. (Ed. J. C. Avise and J. L. Hamrick) pp. 50–74. (Chapman and Hall: USA.)

O’Connell, C., and Keppel, G. (2016). Deep tree hollows: important refuges from extreme temperatures. Wildlife Biology 22, 305–310.
Deep tree hollows: important refuges from extreme temperatures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ottewell, K., Dunlop, J., Thomas, N., Morris, K., Coates, D., and Byrne, M. (2014). Evaluating success of translocations in maintaining genetic diversity in a threatened mammal. Biological Conservation 171, 209–219.
Evaluating success of translocations in maintaining genetic diversity in a threatened mammal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Paterson, B. M., Morris, R. S., Weston, J., and Cowan, P. E. (1995). Foraging and denning patterns of brushtail possums, and their possible relationship to contact with cattle and the transmission of bovine tuberculosis. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 43, 281–288.
Foraging and denning patterns of brushtail possums, and their possible relationship to contact with cattle and the transmission of bovine tuberculosis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16031867PubMed |

Peakall, R., and Smouse, P. E. (2006). GENALEX 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research. Molecular Ecology Notes 6, 288–295.
GENALEX 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Peakall, R., and Smouse, P. E. (2012). GenAlEx 6.5: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research – an update. Bioinformatics 28, 2537–2539.
GenAlEx 6.5: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research – an update.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22820204PubMed |

Piry, S., Luikart, G., and Cornuet, J. M. (1999). BOTTLENECK: a computer program for detecting recent reductions in the effective population size using allele frequency data. The Journal of Heredity 90, 502–503.
BOTTLENECK: a computer program for detecting recent reductions in the effective population size using allele frequency data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ralls, K., Ballou, J. D., Dudash, M. R., Eldridge, M., Fenster, C. B., Lacy, R. C., Sunnucks, P., and Frankham, R. (2017). Call for a paradigm shift in the genetic management of fragmented populations. Conservation Letters 11, e12412.
Call for a paradigm shift in the genetic management of fragmented populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ramey, R. R., Luikart, G., and Singer, F. J. (2000). Genetic bottlenecks resulting from restoration efforts: the case of bighorn sheep in Badlands National Park. Restoration Ecology 8, 85–90.
Genetic bottlenecks resulting from restoration efforts: the case of bighorn sheep in Badlands National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rhind, S. G. (2004). Direct impacts of logging and forest management on the brush-tailed phascogale Phascogale tapoatafa and other arboreal marsupials in a jarrah forest of Western Australia. In ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. (Ed. D. Lunney) pp. 639–655. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney.)

Sarre, S. D., Aitken, N., Adamack, A. T., MacDonald, A. J., Gruber, B., and Cowan, P. (2014). Creating new evolutionary pathways through bioinvasion: the population genetics of brushtail possums in New Zealand. Molecular Ecology 23, 3419–3433.
Creating new evolutionary pathways through bioinvasion: the population genetics of brushtail possums in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24943509PubMed |

Semple, L. (2016). Determining the genetic health of a population of reintroduced endemic brush-tail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) [Kerr, 1792] in Western Australia. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Göttingen, Germany.

Shapiro, S. S., and Wilk, M. B. (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika 52, 591–611.
An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Short, J., and Hide, A. (2014). Successful reintroduction of the brushtail possum to Wadderin Sanctuary in the eastern wheatbelt of Western Australia. Australian Mammalogy 36, 229–241.
Successful reintroduction of the brushtail possum to Wadderin Sanctuary in the eastern wheatbelt of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sommer, S. (2005). The importance of immune gene variability (MHC) in evolutionary ecology and conservation. Frontiers in Zoology 2, 1–16.
The importance of immune gene variability (MHC) in evolutionary ecology and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Soulé, M. E. (1987). ‘Viable Populations for Conservation.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Spencer, C. C., Neigel, J. E., and Leberg, P. L. (2000). Experimental evaluation of the usefulness of microsatellite DNA for detecting demographic bottlenecks. Molecular Ecology 9, 1517–1528.
Experimental evaluation of the usefulness of microsatellite DNA for detecting demographic bottlenecks.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 11050547PubMed |

Stow, A. J., Minarovic, N., Eymann, J., Cooper, D. W., and Webley, L. S. (2006). Genetic structure infers generally high philopatry and male-biased dispersal of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in urban Australia. Wildlife Research 33, 409–415.
Genetic structure infers generally high philopatry and male-biased dispersal of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in urban Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Sunnucks, P., and Hales, D. F. (1996). Numerous transposed sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I–II in aphids of the genus Sitobion (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Molecular Biology and Evolution 13, 510–524.
Numerous transposed sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I–II in aphids of the genus Sitobion (Hemiptera: Aphididae).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 8742640PubMed |

Tasmanian Museum (2013). The common brushtail possum – a gift to royalty. Tasmanian Government. Available at: http://shapingtasmania.tmag.tas.gov.au/object.aspx?ID=62 [accessed 1 September 2016].

Taylor, A. C., and Cooper, D. W. (1998). Microsatellite markers for the phalangerid marsupial, the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). Molecular Ecology 7, 1780–1782.
Microsatellite markers for the phalangerid marsupial, the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 9859208PubMed |

Taylor, A. C., Cowan, P. E., Fricke, B. L., Geddes, S., Hansen, B. D., Lam, M., and Cooper, D. W. (2004). High microsatellite diversity and differential structuring among populations of the introduced common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, in New Zealand. Genetical Research 83, 101–111.
High microsatellite diversity and differential structuring among populations of the introduced common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15219155PubMed |

Uller, T., and Leimu, R. (2011). Founder events predict changes in genetic diversity during human‐mediated range expansions. Global Change Biology 17, 3478–3485.
Founder events predict changes in genetic diversity during human‐mediated range expansions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Weeks, A. R., Sgro, C. M., Young, A. G., Frankham, R., Mitchell, N. J., Miller, K. A., Byrne, M., Coates, D. J., Eldridge, M. D., Sunnucks, P., and Breed, M. F. (2011). Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective. Evolutionary Applications 4, 709–725.
Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22287981PubMed |

Weeks, A. R., Moro, D., Thavornkanlapachai, R., Taylor, H. R., White, N. E., Weiser, E. L., and Heinze, D. (2015). Conserving and enhancing genetic diversity in translocation programs. In ‘Advances in Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna’. (Ed. D Armstrong, M. Hayward, D. Moro and P. Seddon) pp. 127–140. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Winnard, A. L., and Coulson, G. (2008). Sixteen years of eastern barred bandicoot Perameles gunnii reintroductions in Victoria: a review. Pacific Conservation Biology 14, 34–53.
Sixteen years of eastern barred bandicoot Perameles gunnii reintroductions in Victoria: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Woinarski, J. C. Z., and Braithwaite, R. W. (1990). Conservation foci for Australian birds and mammals. Search 21, 65–68.

Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A. A., and Harrison, P. (2014). ‘The Action Plan for Australian Mammals 2012.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Wolf, C. M., Griffith, B., Reed, C., and Temple, S. A. (1996). Avian and mammalian translocations: update and reanalysis of 1987 survey data. Conservation Biology 10, 1142–1154.
Avian and mammalian translocations: update and reanalysis of 1987 survey data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zaiontz, C. (2015). Real statistics using Excel. Available at: www.real-statistics.com [accessed 15 August 2016].