Ecological monitoring and assessment of freshwater ecosystems: new trends and future challenges
Yong Xiao
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Abstract
Freshwater resources play an indispensable role in sustaining biodiversity and socioeconomics, yet face intensifying threats from anthropogenic disturbances and climatic shifts.
To advance sustainable aquatic ecosystem governance by elucidating the evolving dynamics, functional regimes and transformative pressures affecting freshwater systems, while establishing systematic diagnostic frameworks for resilience quantification and adaptive management.
Literature review and synthesis of 16 rigorously peer-reviewed papers.
This collection highlights cutting-edge innovations in freshwater ecosystem monitoring and predictive frameworks. It shows ecosystem dynamics through multivariate diagnostics, identifying coupled anthropogenic stressors and climatic perturbations as key triggers. Contaminant proliferation and unsustainable extraction practices are pinpointed as critical drivers of ecosystem degradation. Ultimately, this collection explores adaptive governance strategies, reconciling freshwater ecosystem resilience with socioeconomic demands.
Advanced techniques have enhanced the ability to capture the properties and evolutionary dynamics of freshwater ecosystems. However, adaptive governance is essential to balance human community development with freshwater ecosystem resilience, particularly under the pressures of climate change and human activities.
This compilation will significantly enhance our understanding of freshwater ecosystem monitoring, assessment and research trends, while also shedding light on future challenges. It is poised to contribute meaningfully to the sustainable development of freshwater ecosystems.
Keywords: climate change, freshwater ecosystem, human activity, hydrological modelling, hydrosphere, water circulation, water pollution, water resource management.
Introduction
The vital role of freshwater in global ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems, including rivers, lakes, wetlands and groundwater (Fig. 1), constitute less than 1% of Earth’s total water volume, yet sustain over 10% of all known species and directly support 40% of global fish diversity. These ecosystems are indispensable to terrestrial life, serving as critical hubs for biodiversity, hydrological regulation and biogeochemical cycling (Sheng et al. 2023; Valentim et al. 2025; Yuan et al. 2025). Beyond ecological functions, freshwater resources underpin human survival, providing drinking water, agricultural irrigation and industrial supply for nearly 80% of the global population (Pawlowski et al. 2018; Xiao Yong et al. 2018; Yang H et al. 2023).
The United Nations has consistently highlighted the urgency of safeguarding freshwater ecosystems. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (SDG 6) explicitly prioritises ‘clean water and sanitation for all’ (United Nations 2015), and the Intergovernmental Science–Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) warns that freshwater species populations have declined by 84% since 1970 (Brondizio et al. 2019), the steepest drop among all biomes. Furthermore, the Ramsar Convention underscores the accelerating loss of wetlands, vital carbon sinks and flood buffers, at three times the rate of forests (Courouble et al. 2021). Such international consensus highlights freshwater ecosystems not merely as environmental assets but as linchpins of planetary health and socioeconomic stability.
Emerging challenges in freshwater ecosystems: climate change and anthropogenic pressures
Over the past decades, researches have increasingly highlighted the dual threats of climate change and human activities on freshwater systems (Xiao Yong et al. 2022a; Gallitelli et al. 2024; Wu et al. 2024). Since the pre-industrial period, climate change has imposed profound and multifaceted stresses on freshwater systems, with these impacts intensifying notably in recent decades (NASA 2025). Global temperature increases are exacerbating the imbalance in water resource distribution and disrupting the stability of water cycle (Zhu et al. 2025). Rising water temperatures exacerbate thermal stratification in lakes, reducing oxygen solubility and triggering habitat compression for stenothermic species, which face metabolic stress and altered phenology (Yaghouti et al. 2023; Liu Y et al. 2024). Additionally, accelerated glacial retreat and diminished snowpack in alpine regions disrupt seasonal flow regimes and reduce water availability (Dar and Sarif 2024), resulting in habitat loss for species adapted to cold environments (Fig. 2). Ocean–atmosphere interactions, particularly ENSO variability, further modulate freshwater availability, thereby compounding uncertainties for ecosystem resilience (Pörtner et al. 2022). These cascading effects underscore the urgent need for adaptive management strategies to buffer biodiversity and hydrological services.
Human activities compound the aforementioned climatic stressors degrading freshwater ecosystem integrity through three principal pathways. Physical restructuring of hydrological systems constitutes the first mechanism, with dams fragmenting global river networks (Grill et al. 2019), thereby disrupting longitudinal connectivity essential for sediment transport and aquatic species migration (Zhang et al. 2024). The second pathway involves biogeochemical contamination, where intensive agricultural practices generate nutrient surpluses that drive eutrophication (Xiao Yong et al. 2022b; Hao et al. 2023; Cao et al. 2025), whereas emerging pharmaceutical and perfluoroalkyl pollutants induce chronic toxicity and antimicrobial resistance in aquatic organisms (Wilkinson et al. 2022). Third, ecological destabilisation occurs through anthropogenic habitat modifications, as urban expansion and wetland reclamation diminish floodplain buffering capacities against climatic extremes (Zedler and Kercher 2005). These interdependent processes collectively impair critical functions of freshwater ecosystem through hydrological discontinuity, biogeochemical cycle disruption and biodiversity-mediated resilience loss (Fig. 2).
Imperatives for advanced monitoring and holistic assessment
Traditional monitoring approaches, reliant on sporadic physicochemical measurements and indicator species, are increasingly inadequate in addressing these multidimensional crises. Contemporary freshwater management requires advanced monitoring frameworks capable of resolving the complex interactions among multidimensional stressors affecting freshwater ecosystems. Emerging sensor networks integrating spatially continuous dissolved oxygen tracking (Boipai and Mohanty 2025), contaminant flux quantification (Sullivan et al. 2023) and thermal regime analysis (Xiao Yong et al. 2024a) now facilitate dynamic ecosystem diagnostics across temporal and spatial gradients. Satellite-based hydrological monitoring systems, such as synthetic aperture radar interferometry, provide continental-scale insights into surface-water dynamics (Teixeira et al. 2024) and groundwater storage loss patterns (Stevens et al. 2025), thereby addressing critical gaps in traditional point-source sampling methods. To distinguish climate-driven variability from anthropogenic impacts in heterogeneous datasets, machine learning architectures can be systematically integrated with real-time monitoring infrastructure (Wang L et al. 2025). These advanced tools enhance predictive accuracy by identifying non-linear stressor–response relationships and optimising adaptive management strategies (Nam et al. 2023).
Holistic assessment frameworks should prioritise integrating multi-source data streams with process-based models that simulate stressor cascades across hierarchical levels. System dynamics models that incorporate hydrological connectivity thresholds, biogeochemical cycle disruptions and biodiversity-mediated resilience loss are crucial for predicting ecological tipping points (Vári et al. 2022). Implementing these frameworks necessitates breaking down disciplinary silos by establishing unified data ontologies that standardise measurements across micro- to regional scales. Federated learning architectures embedded in digital twin platforms facilitate scenario-based decision-making, balancing competing demands such as hydropower generation and sediment connectivity preservation (Ho et al. 2020). Such cyber-physical systems are crucial for addressing the dual challenges of water scarcity and extreme flooding while safeguarding freshwater-dependent terrestrial ecosystems (Vári et al. 2022).
Equally critical is the adoption of multi-stressor frameworks that quantify synergistic impacts of warming, pollution and habitat loss (Spears et al. 2021). The European Union’s Water Framework Directive exemplifies this shift, mandating ecological status assessments based on hydromorphological, biological and chemical metrics. However, gaps persist in translating data into actionable policies. A few of countries have implemented integrated water resource management plans as advocated by UN-Water, underscoring the need for science–policy interfaces that bridge monitoring outcomes with governance (Moss et al. 2020).
New frontiers of this collection
Freshwater ecosystems face escalating pressures from climate change, urbanisation and resource exploitation, necessitating interdisciplinary solutions that bridge technical innovation with socioeconomic considerations. This collection, in support of the sixth International Symposium on Water Pollution and Treatment, synthesises cutting-edge research addressing these challenges through novel methodologies, cross-disciplinary insights and governance frameworks. Contributions span advanced monitoring techniques, ecological impact assessments, human–nature interactions and adaptive management strategies (Fig. 3), collectively advancing pathways for sustainable freshwater governance. Each contribution not only advances technical solutions but also critically examines socioeconomic barriers to freshwater conservation, offering pathways for sustainable development of freshwater ecosystem and human community.
Term frequency cloud generated using the titles, abstracts and keywords of the articles published in current collection.
Advancements in monitoring and predictive modelling
Accurate monitoring forms the foundation of effective ecosystem management. Recent studies have demonstrated progress in overcoming data scarcity through innovative approaches (Cluster 1 in Fig. 3). For instance, adaptive weighted-average Kriging interpolation techniques have enhanced the precision of water quality predictions in heterogeneous environments (Liu Q et al. 2024). Similarly, remote sensing coupled with modified soil loss equations has enabled large-scale detection of erosion in river basins, addressing limitations of traditional ground surveys (Boota et al. 2024). In tropical regions, deep learning integrated with underwater videography offers fish population monitoring, enabling real-time detection of anthropogenic disturbances (Jansen et al. 2024). These methodologies collectively highlight the shift toward scalable, technology-driven solutions for ecosystem surveillance.
Climate-driven dynamics and ecological responses
Building on advancements in monitoring, recent studies have expanded understanding of climate-induced hydrological shifts (Cluster 2 in Fig. 3). Xiao Yang et al. (2024) advanced concise precipitation forecasting models to improve water resource planning in data-poor regions, a critical step for climate adaptation. Concurrently, Yan et al. (2024) identified temperature and light intensity as primary drivers of seasonal cyanobacterial blooms in reservoirs, emphasising the vulnerability of surface water sources to warming trends. Coastal regions also face emerging threats, as demonstrated by the early-warning framework for Phaeocystis globosa blooms near nuclear infrastructure (Ni et al. 2024), underscoring the need for species-specific risk management in warming oceans.
Anthropogenic pressures and landscape transformations
Urbanisation and infrastructure development emerge as key disruptors of freshwater integrity (Cluster 3 in Fig. 3). Wang S et al. (2024) showed how rapid urban expansion fragments wetland habitats and degrades water quality, whereas the spatial-temporal analysis of bay-area habitats conducted by He and Ai (2024) quantified biodiversity loss under land-use and land-cover changes. Water infrastructure projects present dual challenges. Yang L et al. (2024) stressed the necessity of ecological safeguards in hydraulic engineering to sustain rural tourism economies, whereas Kimura et al. (2024) identified unexpected ecological niches by demonstrating that macrophyte-rich zones in small hydropower reservoirs can support fish nurseries. Such findings highlight the intricate trade-offs between development and conservation of freshwater ecosystems.
Pollution control and resource governance
Addressing freshwater ecosystem degradation requires integrated pollution and carbon management strategies (Cluster 4 in Fig. 3). Qi et al. (2024) proposed targeted measures against reservoir eutrophication, whereas Fu et al. (2024) demonstrated synergistic policies in the Yangtze Delta that concurrently reduce emissions and aquatic pollution. Agricultural water use, which drives global consumption patterns, is critically examined through exploring ownership-based incentives to enhance farmer participation in freshwater resource conservation efforts (Rong et al. 2024). Complementing these efforts, Yu et al. (2024) validated fuzzy evaluation models for aquaculture impact assessment, advocating continuous water quality tracking to balance productivity and ecosystem health.
Decision-support frameworks for sustainable governance
Emerging evaluation systems are reshaping freshwater ecosystem management paradigms (Cluster 5 in Fig. 3). Zeng (2024) developed a robust model integrating socioeconomic and ecological metrics to optimise water allocation equity, whereas Zhang (2025) pioneered a fuzzy-AHP framework for assessing coastal landscape vulnerability to external disturbances. These tools enable policymakers to quantify trade-offs between development priorities and ecological resilience, particularly crucial for megaregions facing competing water demands.
Final remarks
This collection has highlighted the multifaceted nature of freshwater ecosystem conservation, where technological innovation needs to be in sync with governance reforms and behavioural incentives. Key advances include spatially explicit monitoring systems, climate-resilient forecasting tools and integrative evaluation frameworks that reconcile ecological thresholds with human needs. However, persistent gaps in transboundary governance mechanisms and community-level engagement highlight the need for policy architectures that bridge scale mismatches. Future research must prioritise coupled human–water system modelling and policy innovation to effectively implement proposed solutions, thereby ensuring freshwater sustainability amid interconnected ecological and socioeconomic crises.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were generated or analysed during this study.
Conflicts of interest
Yong Xiao is the Guest Editor of the ‘Ecological monitoring and assessment of freshwater ecosystems: new trends and future challenges’ collection in Marine and Freshwater Research. Despite this relationship, Yong took no part in the review and acceptance of this manuscript, in line with the publishing policy. The author declares that they have no further conflicts of interest.
Declaration of funding
This research was supported by MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) (2023-004, received by Yong Xiao); Special Fund Project for Guiding Local Scientific and Technological Development by the Central Government in Qinghai Province (2025-ZY-051, received by Yong Xiao); China Geological Survey (DD20230301, received by Yong Xiao); Key Lab of Environmental Geology of Qinghai Province (2023-KJ-15 and 2024-KJ-06, received by Yong Xiao); and Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2682025ZTZD007, received by Yong Xiao).
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