Response of wheat to phosphorus-enriched ironstone gravel

David Weaver; David Rogers; Ronald Master; Peta Richards; Robert Summers; Simon Clarendon

doi:10.1071/SR24151

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Previous Contents Vol 63(5)

Response of wheat to phosphorus-enriched ironstone gravel

David Weaver

^A , David Rogers ^A , Ronald Master ^A , Peta Richards ^B , Robert Summers

^C and Simon Clarendon

^A ^*

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Western Australia, 444 Albany Highway, Albany, WA 6330, Australia.

^B Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Western Australia, 28527 South West Highway, Manjimup, WA 6258, Australia.

^C Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Western Australia, 45 Mandurah Terrace, Mandurah, WA 6210, Australia.

^* Correspondence to: simon.clarendon@dpird.wa.gov.au

Handling Editor: Etelvino Henrique Novotny

Soil Research 63, SR24151 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR24151

Submitted: 4 September 2024 Accepted: 5 June 2025 Published: 1 July 2025

© 2025 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Context

Gravel fractions (>2 mm) in soil are almost always excluded from laboratory analysis and glasshouse experiments as they are considered to be inert; however, the >2 mm fraction is always present in field experiments.

Aims

To determine whether the >2 mm fraction of ironstone gravel (IG) soil enriched with phosphorus (P) can supply P to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

Methods

An IG soil was separated into different size fractions (<2, 2–4, 4–6, 6–8 and 8–10 mm), and adsorption and desorption experiments, volumetric moisture measurements and glasshouse experiments were conducted. Each of the >2 mm fractions were enriched with P to different levels and added to a sand culture, or to the enriched <2 mm fraction in different amounts (25%, 50% and 75% IG). Wheat was grown in pots and growth correlated to P added from enriched soil fractions, weighted Colwell P, soil solution P concentrations and volumetric water content.

Key results

The <2 mm fraction of the IG soil adsorbed more P than the >2 mm fraction of the IG soil likely due to its greater specific surface area. Volumetric water content decreased as gravel amount increased. Wheat was more responsive to P for larger compared to smaller gravel sizes. The P-enriched IG was able to support the growth of wheat in the absence of any other P source. For the same level of P enrichment, dry matter decreased as gravel amount increased.

Conclusions

The IG influences wheat growth through P retention and release and soil moisture. Volumetric water content can be reduced significantly by high gravel contents, leading to reduced wheat growth despite sufficient P fertility.

Implications

Depending on the nature of the soil matrix, soils with high amounts (~50%) of larger IG are likely to require lower P applications to optimise crop yield. Soil sampling strategies and laboratory testing need to consider how to practically include the >2 mm fraction during sample collection and analysis.

Keywords: adsorption, desorption, ironstone gravel, phosphorus, responsiveness, volumetric water content, wheat, yield.

References

Abekoe M, Tiessen H (1998) Fertilizer P transformations and P availability in hillslope soils of northern Ghana. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 52(1), 45-54.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Anamosa PR, Nkedi-Kizza P, Blue WG, Sartain JB (1990) Water movement through an aggregated, gravelly oxisol from cameroon. Geoderma 46(1–3), 263-281.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Anderson G, Chen W, Bell RW, Brennan R (2015) Making better fertiliser decisions for cropping systems in Western Australia. Soil test – crop response relationships and critical soil test values and ranges. WA Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Perth. Available at https://library.dpird.wa.gov.au/bulletins/42

Baetens JM, Verbist K, Cornelis WM, Gabriels D, Soto G (2009) On the influence of coarse fragments on soil water retention. Water Resources Research 45(7), W07408.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Barber SA (1962) A diffusion and mass-flow concept of soil nutrient availability. Soil Science 93(1), 39-49.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Barrow NJ (1974) The slow reactions between soil and anions. 1. Effects of time, temperature, and water content of a soil on the decrease in effectiveness of phosphate for plant growth. Soil Science 118, 380-386.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Barrow NJ (2021) Comparing two theories about the nature of soil phosphate. European Journal of Soil Science 72(2), 679-685.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Barrow NJ, Shaw TC (1975) The slow reactions between soil and anions. 2. Effect of time and temperature on the decrease in phosphate concentration in the soil solution. Soil Science 119(2), 167-177.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bell R, Reuter D, Scott B, Sparrow L, Strong W, Chen W (2013) Soil phosphorus–crop response calibration relationships and criteria for winter cereal crops grown in Australia. Crop & Pasture Science 64(5), 480-498.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bhat KKS, Nye PH (1973) Diffusion of phosphate to plant roots in soil. Plant and Soil 38(1), 161-175.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Blair GJ, Chinoim N, Lefroy RDB, Anderson GC, Crocker GJ (1991) A soil sulfur test for pastures and crops. Soil Research 29(5), 619-626.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bowden JW, Bennett D (1974) The ‘Decide’ model for predicting superphosphate requirements. In ‘Proceeding of Phosphorus in Agriculture Symposium 1974’, pp. 6.1–6.36. (Australian Institute of Agricultural Science: Parkville, Vic, Australia)

Brouwer J, Anderson H (2000) Water holding capacity of ironstone gravel in a typic plinthoxeralf in Southeast Australia. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64, 1603-1608.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brunauer S, Emmett PH, Teller E (1938) Adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers. Journal of the American Chemical Society 60(2), 309-319.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Buchter B, Hinz C, Flühler H (1994) Sample size for determination of coarse fragment content in a stony soil. Geoderma 63(3–4), 265-275.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Burkitt LL, Moody PW, Gourley CJP, Hannah MC (2002) A simple phosphorus buffering index for Australian soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 40(3), 497-513.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Carrick S, Palmer D, Webb T, Scott J, Lilburne L (2013) Stony soils are a major challenge for nutrient management under irrigation development. In ‘Accurate and efficient use of nutrients on farms’. (Eds LD Currie, CL Christensen). Occasional Report No. 26. (Fertilizer and Lime Research Centre, Massey University: Palmerston North, New Zealand). Available at https://flrc.massey.ac.nz/workshops/13/Manuscripts/Paper_Carrick_1_2013.pdf

Cassel DK, Nielsen DR (1986) Field capacity and available water capacity. In ‘Methods of soil analysis.’ (Ed. A Klute) pp. 901–926. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd)

Chen H, Liu J, Wang K, Zhang W (2011) Spatial distribution of rock fragments on steep hillslopes in karst region of northwest Guangxi, China. CATENA 84(1–2), 21-28.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Clarendon SDV, Weaver DM, Davies PM, Coles NA (2019) The influence of particle size and mineralogy on both phosphorus retention and release by streambed sediments. Journal of Soils and Sediments 19(5), 2624-2633.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Colwell JD (1963) The estimation of the phosphorus fertilizer requirements of wheat in southern New South Wales by soil analysis. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 3(10), 190-197.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cousin I, Nicoullaud B, Coutadeur C (2003) Influence of rock fragments on the water retention and water percolation in a calcareous soil. CATENA 53(2), 97-114.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cresswell HP, Green TW, McKenzie NJ (2008) The adequacy of pressure plate apparatus for determining soil water retention. Soil Science Society of America Journal 72(1), 41-49.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dhillon J, Torres G, Driver E, Figueiredo B, Raun WR (2017) World phosphorus use efficiency in cereal crops. Agronomy Journal 109(4), 1670-1677.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ercoli L, Masoni A, Mariotti M, Arduini I (2006) Dry matter accumulation and remobilization of durum wheat as affected by soil gravel content. Cereal Research Communications 34(4), 1299-1306.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Foley JA (2017) Rapid field and laboratory methods for measuring plant available water capacity and water retention curves. DNRME Technical Note 2017. Department of Natural Resources Mines and Energy, Toowoomba, Qld, Australia. Available at https://www.apsim.info/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Methods-for-PAWWRC-estimation_DNRME.pdf

French RJ, Schultz JE (1984) Water use efficiency of wheat in a Mediterranean-type environment. I. The relation between yield, water use and climate. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 35(6), 743-764.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gourley CJP, Weaver D, Simpson RJ, Aarons SR, Hannah MM, Peverill KI (2019) The development and application of functions describing pasture yield responses to phosphorus, potassium and sulfur in Australia using meta-data analysis and derived soil-test calibration relationships. Crop & Pasture Science 70, 1065-1079.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Govindasamy P, Mahawer SK, Mowrer J, Bagavathiannan M, Prasad M, Ramakrishnan S, Halli HM, Kumar S, Chandra A (2023) Comparison of low-cost methods for soil water holding capacity. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 54(2), 287-296.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

He M, Dijkstra FA (2014) Drought effect on plant nitrogen and phosphorus: a meta-analysis. New Phytologist 204(4), 924-931.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

He D, Oliver Y, Wang E (2021) Predicting plant available water holding capacity of soils from crop yield. Plant and Soil 459(1), 315-328.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hintze JL, Nelson RD (1998) Violin plots: a box plot-density trace synergism. The American Statistician 52(2), 181-184.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hochman Z, Horan H (2018) Causes of wheat yield gaps and opportunities to advance the water-limited yield frontier in Australia. Field Crops Research 228, 20-30.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Holmes KW, Griffin EA, van Gool D (2021) Digital soil mapping of coarse fragments in southwest Australia: targeting simple features yields detailed maps. Geoderma 404, 115282.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Indorante SJ, Hammer RD, Koenig PG, Follmer LR (1990) Particle-size analysis by a modified pipette procedure. Soil Science Society of America Journal 54(2), 560-563.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Isbell RF, National Committee on Soil and Terrain (2021) ‘The Australian soil classification.’ (CSIRO Publishing) Available at https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/8016;SITEKEY=main

IUSS Working Group WRB (2015) World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015 International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. No. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106, FAO, Rome.

Jiang S, Tang Y, Fan R, Bai S, Wang X, Huang Y, Li W, Ji W (2023) Response of Carex breviculmis to phosphorus deficiency and drought stress. Frontiers in Plant Science 14, 1203924.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Liu AN, Zhang Y, Hou ZF, Hui Lü G (2021) Allometric scaling of biomass with nitrogen and phosphorus above- and below-ground in herbaceous plants varies along water-salinity gradients. AoB PLANTS 13(4), plab030.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mason S, McNeill A, McLaughlin M, Zhang H (2010) Prediction of wheat response to an application of phosphorus under field conditions using diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT) and extraction methods. Plant and Soil 337(1–2), 243-258.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mason SD, Mclaughlin MJ, Johnston C, Mcneill A (2013) Soil test measures of available P (Colwell, resin and DGT) compared with plant P uptake using isotope dilution. Plant and Soil 373(1), 711-722.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Masoni A, Ercoli L, Mariotti M, Pampana S (2008) Nitrogen and phosphorus accumulation and remobilization of durum wheat as affected by soil gravel content. Cereal Research Communications 36(1), 157-166.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

McGill R, Tukey JW, Larsen WA (1978) Variations of box plots. The American Statistician 32, 12-16.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

McQuaker NR, Brown DF, Kluckner PD (1979) Digestion of environmental materials for analysis by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry 51(7), 1082-1084.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Miller FT, Guthrie RL (1984) Classification and distribution of soils containing rock fragments in the United States. In ‘Erosion and productivity of soils containing rock fragments’. (Eds D Nichols, PL Brown, WJ Grant) pp. 1–6. (John Wiley & Sons: New York)

Minasny B, McBratney AB (2018) Limited effect of organic matter on soil available water capacity. European Journal of Soil Science 69(1), 39-47.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Moody PW, Bolland MDA (1999) Phosphorus. In ‘Soil analysis: an interpretation manual’. (Eds KI Peverill, LA Sparrow, DJ Reuter) pp. 187–220. (CSIRO)

Moorberg CJ, Crouse DA (2017) ‘Soils laboratory manual, K-State Edition.’ (NPP eBooks 15. New Prairie Press) Available at https://newprairiepress.org/ebooks/15

Murphy J, Riley JP (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Analytica Chimica Acta 27, 31-36.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pennell KD (2016) Specific surface area. In ‘Reference module in earth systems and environmental sciences.’ (Ed. SA Elias). (Elsevier: Amsterdam)

Poesen J, Lavee H (1994) Rock fragments in top soils: significance and processes. CATENA 23(1), 1-28.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Powers SJ (2021) Regression analysis in the context of designed experiments: Neglect not thy opportunity to test for position and parallelism. Annals of Applied Biology 179(1), 4-11.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Rayment GE, Lyons DJ (2011) ‘Soil chemical methods – Australasia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, Vic, Australia). Available at https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/6418/

Reuter DJ, Robinson JB (1997) ‘Plant analysis, an interpretation manual.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, Vic, Australia)

Ritz K, Young IM (2004) Interactions between soil structure and fungi. Mycologist 18(2), 52-59.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Robson AD, Gilkes RJ (1980) Fertiliser responses (N, P, K, S, micronutrients) on lateritic soils in southwestern Australia – a review. In ‘Proceedings of the international seminar on lateritisation processes’. pp. 381–390, (Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.: New Delhi)

Sanidanya AM (2015) Understanding the impact of gravels on water relations and phosphorus uptake in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Masters thesis, Faculty of Science, The University of Western Australia.

Scanlan CA, Malik R, Boitt G, Gherardi M, Easton J, Rengel Z (2024) Phosphorus buffering determines how soil properties and rainfall influence wheat (Triticum aestivum) yield response to phosphorus fertiliser. Crop & Pasture Science 75(12), CP24295.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schoknecht NR, Pathan S (2013) Soil groups of Western Australia : a simple guide to the main soils of Western Australia (4th edn). Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia, Perth. Available at http://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/rmtr/348/

Suriyagoda LDB, Ryan MH, Renton M, Lambers H (2014) Chapter Four – Plant responses to limited moisture and phosphorus availability: a meta-analysis. In ‘Advances in Agronomy.’ (Ed. DL Sparks) vol. 124, pp. 143–200. (Academic Press)

Tamm O (1922) Eine Methode zur Bestimmung de der anorganischen Komponente des Bodens. Meddelanden fran Statens skogsforsoksanstalt Stockholm 19, 387-404 Available at https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10138/1/medd_statens_skogsforskningsanst_027_01.pdf.
| Google Scholar |

Tetegan M, Nicoullaud B, Baize D, Bouthier A, Cousin I (2011) The contribution of rock fragments to the available water content of stony soils: proposition of new pedotransfer functions. Geoderma 165(1), 40-49.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tiessen H, Abekoe MK, Salcedo IH, Owusu-Bennoah E (1993) Reversibility of phosphorus sorption by ferruginous nodules. Plant and Soil 153(1), 113-124.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tokunaga TK, Olson KR, Wan J (2003) Moisture Characteristics of Hanford Gravels. Vadose Zone Journal 2, 322-329.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weaver D, Summers R (2021) Phosphorus status and saturation in soils that drain into the Peel Inlet and Harvey Estuary of Western Australia. Soil Research 59(7), 699-714.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weaver DM, Wong MTF (2011) Scope to improve phosphorus (P) management and balance efficiency of crop and pasture soils with contrasting P status and buffering indices. Plant and Soil 349(1), 37-54.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weaver DM, Ritchie GSP, Gilkes RJ (1992) Phosphorus sorption by gravels in lateritic soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 30(3), 319-330.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weaver D, Summers R, Schweizer S, Leopold M, Scanlan C (2022) Valuable phosphorus retained by ironstone gravels can be measured as bicarbonate extractable P. Geoderma 418, 115862.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weaver D, Summers R, Neuhaus A (2023) Agronomic soil tests can be used to estimate dissolved reactive phosphorus loss. Soil Research 61(7), 627-646.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Weaver D, Rogers D, Dobbe E, et al. (2024) Validation of critical soil-test phosphorus values from the better fertiliser decisions for pastures meta-analysis. Crop & Pasture Science 75(1), CP23194.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wild A (1958) The phosphate content of Australian soils. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 9(2), 193-204.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zadoks JC, Chang TT, Konzak CF (1974) A decimal code for the growth stages of cereals. Weed Research 14(6), 415-421.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |