Effects of fuel characteristics on horizontal spread rate and ground surface temperatures of smouldering duff
Daniel A. Cowan A , Wesley G. Page B , Bret W. Butler B and David L. Blunck A C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
B Rocky Mountain Research Station, US Forest Service, 5775 W Broadway Street, Missoula, MT 59808, USA.
C Corresponding author. Email: david.blunck@oregonstate.edu
International Journal of Wildland Fire 29(9) 820-831 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF19207
Submitted: 12 December 2019 Accepted: 10 May 2020 Published: 6 July 2020
Abstract
The slow-moving flameless burning of wildland fuels (i.e. smouldering) can be difficult to detect and challenging to extinguish. Although previous research involving the smouldering of organic fuels (e.g. cotton, cellulose, peat) has investigated the influence of various fuel characteristics (e.g. moisture content, inorganic content, bulk density) on spread rate and surface temperatures, the smouldering behaviour of other common fuels is not well understood. This study expands on previous research to better understand how fuel characteristics influence the smouldering behaviour of duff from coniferous forests. Specifically, horizontal spread rates (0.5–19.5 cm h−1) and ground surface temperatures (258–392°C) were measured on 52 duff samples collected from underneath mature ponderosa pine trees (Pinus ponderosa) from sites in the Pacific Northwest, USA, and evaluated in terms of their moisture content (6–113%), inorganic content (3–42%), bulk density (34–130 kg m−3) and fuel depth (3.8–16.3 cm). The data suggested that horizontal spread rates decrease when inorganic content, inorganic loading and/or moisture loading of the duff increases. Surface temperatures decrease when inorganic bulk density and/or fuel loading increases. Conversely, surface temperatures decrease when moisture content increases for shallow duff. Higher fuel loading increases the likelihood of smouldering below the surface.
Additional keywords: ponderosa pine, wildfire.
References
ASTM International (1993) A5TM D 2974–87 Standard test methods for moisture, ash, and organic matter of peat and other organic soils. (ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA) Available at http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/resolver.cgi?D2974-20e1 [verified 25 May 2020].Akaike H (1974) A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control 19, 716–723.
| A new look at the statistical model identification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson MK, Sleight RT, Torero JL (2000) Ignition signatures of a downward smolder reaction. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 21, 33–40.
| Ignition signatures of a downward smolder reaction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Benscoter BW, Thompson DK, Waddington JM, Flannigan MD, Wotton BM, De Groot WJ, Turetsky MR (2011) Interactive effects of vegetation, soil moisture and bulk density on depth of burning of thick organic soils. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 418–429.
| Interactive effects of vegetation, soil moisture and bulk density on depth of burning of thick organic soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Calcagno V, de Mazancourt C (2010) glmulti: an R package for easy automated model selection with (generalized) linear models. Journal of Statistical Software 34, 1–29.
| glmulti: an R package for easy automated model selection with (generalized) linear models.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cowan D (2020) Ponderosa pine smoldering study at Oregon State University. Zenodo. Available at https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.3758298 [verified 25 May 2020]
Cruz MG, Alexander ME (2013) Uncertainty associated with model predictions of surface and crown fire rates of spread. Environmental Modelling & Software 47, 16–28.
| Uncertainty associated with model predictions of surface and crown fire rates of spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frandsen WH (1987) The influence of moisture and mineral soil on the combustion limits of smoldering forest duff. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17, 1540–1544.
| The influence of moisture and mineral soil on the combustion limits of smoldering forest duff.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frandsen WH (1997) Ignition probability of organic soils. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27, 1471–1477.
| Ignition probability of organic soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garlough EC (2010) Factors that influence ponderosa pine duff mound consumption. PhD thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA. Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations and Professional Papers. 429. Available at https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/429 [verified 25 May 2020].
Hagen BC, Frette V, Kleppe G, Arntzen BJ (2011) Onset of smoldering in cotton: effects of density. Fire Safety Journal 46, 73–80.
| Onset of smoldering in cotton: effects of density.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang X, Rein G (2014) Smouldering combustion of peat in wildfires: inverse modelling of the drying and the thermal and oxidative decomposition kinetics. Combustion and Flame 161, 1633–1644.
| Smouldering combustion of peat in wildfires: inverse modelling of the drying and the thermal and oxidative decomposition kinetics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang X, Rein G (2015) Computational study of critical moisture and depth of burn in peat fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 798–808.
| Computational study of critical moisture and depth of burn in peat fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang X, Rein G (2016) Interactions of Earth’s atmospheric oxygen and fuel moisture in smouldering wildfires. The Science of the Total Environment 572, 1440–1446.
| Interactions of Earth’s atmospheric oxygen and fuel moisture in smouldering wildfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27131637PubMed |
Huang X, Rein G (2019) Upward-and-downward spread of smoldering peat fire. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 37, 4025–4033.
| Upward-and-downward spread of smoldering peat fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang X, Restuccia F, Gramola M, Rein G (2016) Experimental study of the formation and collapse of an overhang in the lateral spread of smouldering peat fires. Combustion and Flame 168, 393–402.
| Experimental study of the formation and collapse of an overhang in the lateral spread of smouldering peat fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson EA, Keith DM, Martin YE (2013) Comparing measured duff moisture with a water budget model and the duff and drought codes of the Canadian Fire Weather Index. Forest Science 59, 78–92.
| Comparing measured duff moisture with a water budget model and the duff and drought codes of the Canadian Fire Weather Index.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
López G, Basterra LA, Acuña L, Casado M (2013) Determination of the emissivity of wood for inspection by infrared thermography. Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation 32, 172–176.
| Determination of the emissivity of wood for inspection by infrared thermography.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nelson DW, Sommers LE (1996) Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In ‘Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. Chemical methods’, Soil Science Society of America Book Series no. 5. (Eds DL Sparks, AL Page, PA Helmke, R Loeppert) Ch. 34, pp. 961–1010. (Soil Science Society of America, American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA)
Ohlemiller T (1985) Modeling of smoldering combustion propagation. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 11, 277–310.
| Modeling of smoldering combustion propagation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Oswalt SN, Smith WB (2014) U.S. Forest resource facts and historical trends. August, https://doi.org/ FS-1035. USDA Forest Service.
Pawlitz R (2018) Forest Service firefighters respond to Eagle Creek hotspot. USDA Forest Service.
Prat-Guitart N, Belcher C, Hadden R, Rein G, Yearsley J (2015) A laboratory study of the effect of moisture content on the spread of smouldering in peat fires. Flamma 6, 35–38.
Prat-Guitart N, Rein G, Hadden RM, Belcher CM, Yearsley JM (2016) Propagation probability and spread rates of self-sustained smouldering fires under controlled moisture content and bulk density conditions. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 456–465.
| Propagation probability and spread rates of self-sustained smouldering fires under controlled moisture content and bulk density conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rappold AG, Stone SL, Cascio WE, Neas LM, Kilaru VJ, Carraway MS, Szykman JJ, Ising A, Cleve WE, Meredith JT, Vaughan-Batten H, Deyneka L, Devlin RB (2011) Peat bog wildfire smoke exposure in rural North Carolina is associated with cardiopulmonary emergency department visits assessed through syndromic surveillance. Environmental Health Perspectives 119, 1415–1420.
| Peat bog wildfire smoke exposure in rural North Carolina is associated with cardiopulmonary emergency department visits assessed through syndromic surveillance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21705297PubMed |
Rein G (2009) Smouldering combustion phenomena in science and technology. International Review of Chemical Engineering 1, 3–18.
Rein G (2013) Smouldering fires and natural fuels. In ‘Fire phenomena and the Earth system: an interdisciplinary guide to fire science’. (Ed CM Belcher) pp. 15–33. (John Wiley & Sons)
Ryan KC, Frandsen WH (1991) Basal injury from smoldering fires in mature Pinus ponderosa Laws. International Journal of Wildland Fire 1, 107–118.
| Basal injury from smoldering fires in mature Pinus ponderosa Laws.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smucker BD, Mulky TC, Cowan DA, Kyle E (2019) Effects of fuel content and density on the smoldering characteristics of cellulose and hemicellulose. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 37, 4107–4116.
| Effects of fuel content and density on the smoldering characteristics of cellulose and hemicellulose.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vanaparti A (2016) Experimental study of radiative properties of charcoal combustion in grills. PhD thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA. Available at http://hdl.handle.net/10415/5013 [verified 25 May 2020]
Van Wagtendonk JW, Van Benedict JM, Sydoriak WM (1998) Fuelbed characteristics of Sierra Nevada conifers. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 13, 73–84.
| Fuelbed characteristics of Sierra Nevada conifers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Waksman SA (1936) Humus origin, chemical composition, and importance in nature. Soil Science 41, 395–493.
| Humus origin, chemical composition, and importance in nature.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wang H, Van Eyk PJ, Medwell PR, Birzer CH, Tian ZF, Possell M (2017) Effects of oxygen concentration on radiation-aided and self-sustained smoldering combustion of radiata pine. Energy & Fuels 31, 8619–8630.
| Effects of oxygen concentration on radiation-aided and self-sustained smoldering combustion of radiata pine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watts AC, Kobziar LN (2013) Smoldering combustion and ground fires: ecological effects and multiscale significance. Fire Ecology 9, 124–132.
| Smoldering combustion and ground fires: ecological effects and multiscale significance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wein RW (1981) Characteristics and suppression of fires in organic terrain in Australia. Australian Forestry 44, 162–169.
| Characteristics and suppression of fires in organic terrain in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yang J, Chen H (2018) Natural downward smouldering of peat: effects of inorganic content and piled bed height. Fire Technology 54, 1219–1247.
| Natural downward smouldering of peat: effects of inorganic content and piled bed height.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zhao W, Chen H, Liu N, Zhou J (2014) Thermogravimetric analysis of peat decomposition under different oxygen concentrations. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 117, 489–497.
| Thermogravimetric analysis of peat decomposition under different oxygen concentrations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
