Carbon and nutrient release from experimental inundation of agricultural and forested floodplain soil and vegetation: influence of floodplain land use on the development of hypoxic blackwater during floods
Xiaoying Liu A D , Robyn J. Watts A B , Julia A. Howitt A C and Nicole McCasker AA Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640, Australia.
B School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640, Australia.
C School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: xiliu@csu.edu.au
Marine and Freshwater Research 71(2) 213-228 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF18452
Submitted: 26 November 2018 Accepted: 2 April 2019 Published: 24 June 2019
Abstract
Overbank floods in modified lowland rivers often inundate a mosaic of different land uses (e.g. forests, crops and pastures) on the floodplain. We used a glasshouse experiment to investigate dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nutrient (TP, NH4+, NOx) releases, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and dissolved oxygen (DO) depletion in water following inundation of soil and vegetation from a lowland river floodplain in southern Australia. Six replicate samples of six intact soil and groundcover treatments were collected during summer; three from a forest (bare soil, wallaby grass and leaf litter) and three from an adjacent paddock (bare soil, wheat and ryegrass). Samples were placed in pots, inundated with river water over 16 days, and their leachates were compared with a river-water control. All vegetated groundcover treatments had significantly higher DOC and COD and significantly less DO at both Day 1 and Day 16 than did the soil-only treatments or the control. Leachates from paddock treatments were less coloured than those from forest treatments, despite having similar concentrations of DOC. Our findings imply that the inundation of any vegetation during summer floods can be a major source of DOC and a major contributor to DO depletion.
Additional keywords: carbon characterisation, Edward–Wakool River system, floodplain catchment management, Murray–Darling Basin, nitrogen, phosphorus.
References
ANZECC (2000). ‘Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality.’ (Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand: Sydney, NSW, Australia, and Auckland, New Zealand.)Baldwin, D. S. (1999). Dissolved organic matter and phosphorus leached from fresh and ‘terrestrially’ aged river red gum leaves: implications for assessing river–floodplain interactions. Freshwater Biology 41, 675–685.
| Dissolved organic matter and phosphorus leached from fresh and ‘terrestrially’ aged river red gum leaves: implications for assessing river–floodplain interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldwin, D. S., and Mitchell, A. M. (2000). The effects of drying and re-flooding on the sediment and soil nutrient dynamics of lowland river–floodplain systems: a synthesis. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 16, 457–467.
| The effects of drying and re-flooding on the sediment and soil nutrient dynamics of lowland river–floodplain systems: a synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldwin, D. S., and Valo, W. (2015). Exploring the relationship between the optical properties of water and the quality and quantity of dissolved organic carbon in aquatic ecosystems: strong correlations do not always mean strong predictive power. Environmental Science. Processes & Impacts 17, 619–630.
| Exploring the relationship between the optical properties of water and the quality and quantity of dissolved organic carbon in aquatic ecosystems: strong correlations do not always mean strong predictive power.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldwin, D. S., Paul, W. L., Wilson, J. S., Pitman, T., Rees, G. N., and Klein, A. R. (2015). Changes in soil carbon in response to flooding of the floodplain of a semi-arid lowland river. Freshwater Science 34, 431–439.
| Changes in soil carbon in response to flooding of the floodplain of a semi-arid lowland river.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., and Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software 67, 1–48.
| Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bolan, N. S., Adriano, D. C., Kunhikrishnan, A., James, T., McDowell, R., and Senesi, N. (2011). Chapter one-dissolved organic matter: biogeochemistry, dynamics, and environmental significance in soils. In ‘Advances in Agronomy’. (Ed. D. L. Sparks.) pp. 1–75 (Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA.)
Bureau of Meteorology (2017). Special Climate Statement 58: record September rains continue wet period in much of Australia. (Bureau of Meteorology.) Available at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs58.pdf [Verified 10 May 2019].
Chen, H., Zhou, J., and Xiao, B. (2010). Characterization of dissolved organic matter derived from rice straw at different stages of decay. Journal of Soils and Sediments 10, 915–922.
| Characterization of dissolved organic matter derived from rice straw at different stages of decay.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coble, P. G. (1996). Characterization of marine and terrestrial DOM in seawater using excitation-emission matrix spectroscopy. Marine Chemistry 51, 325–346.
| Characterization of marine and terrestrial DOM in seawater using excitation-emission matrix spectroscopy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Day, P. R. (1965). Particle fractionation and particle-size analysis In ‘Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Properties, including Statistics of Measurement and Sampling. (Ed. C. A. Black.) Agronomy Monograph, pp. 545–567. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA.)
Delprat, L., Chassin, P., Linères, M., and Jambert, C. (1997). Characterization of dissolved organic carbon in cleared forest soils converted to maize cultivation. European Journal of Agronomy 7, 201–210.
| Characterization of dissolved organic carbon in cleared forest soils converted to maize cultivation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eyre, B. D., Kerr, G., and Sullivan, L. A. (2006). Deoxygenation potential of the Richmond River Estuary floodplain, northern NSW, Australia. River Research and Applications 22, 981–992.
| Deoxygenation potential of the Richmond River Estuary floodplain, northern NSW, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gehrke, P. C., Revell, M. B., and Philbey, A. W. (1993). Effects of river red gum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, litter on golden perch, Macquaria ambigua. Journal of Fish Biology 43, 265–279.
| Effects of river red gum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, litter on golden perch, Macquaria ambigua.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ghani, A., Dexter, M., Carran, R. A., and Theobald, P. W. (2007). Dissolved organic nitrogen and carbon in pastoral soils: the New Zealand experience. European Journal of Soil Science 58, 832–843.
| Dissolved organic nitrogen and carbon in pastoral soils: the New Zealand experience.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ghani, A., Müller, K., Dodd, M., and Mackay, A. (2010). Dissolved organic matter leaching in some contrasting New Zealand pasture soils. European Journal of Soil Science 61, 525–538.
| Dissolved organic matter leaching in some contrasting New Zealand pasture soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hale, J. and SKM (2011). Environmental water delivery: Edward–Wakool. Prepared for Commonwealth Environmental Water, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Canberra, ACT Australia.
Hladyz, S., Watkins, S. C., Whitworth, K. L., and Baldwin, D. S. (2011). Flows and hypoxic blackwater events in managed ephemeral river channels. Journal of Hydrology 401, 117–125.
| Flows and hypoxic blackwater events in managed ephemeral river channels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Howitt, J. A., Baldwin, D. S., Rees, G. N., and Williams, J. L. (2007). Modelling blackwater: predicting water quality during flooding of lowland river forests. Ecological Modelling 203, 229–242.
| Modelling blackwater: predicting water quality during flooding of lowland river forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Howitt, J. A., Baldwin, D. S., Rees, G. N., and Hart, B. T. (2008). Photodegradation, interaction with iron oxides and bioavailability of dissolved organic matter from forested floodplain sources. Marine and Freshwater Research 59, 780–791.
| Photodegradation, interaction with iron oxides and bioavailability of dissolved organic matter from forested floodplain sources.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Huang, W., McDowell, W. H., Zou, X., Ruan, H., Wang, J., and Ma, Z. (2015). Qualitative differences in headwater stream dissolved organic matter and riparian water-extractable soil organic matter under four different vegetation types along an altitudinal gradient in the Wuyi Mountains of China. Applied Geochemistry 52, 67–75.
| Qualitative differences in headwater stream dissolved organic matter and riparian water-extractable soil organic matter under four different vegetation types along an altitudinal gradient in the Wuyi Mountains of China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kerr, J. L., Baldwin, D. S., and Whitworth, K. L. (2013). Options for managing hypoxic blackwater events in river systems: a review. Journal of Environmental Management 114, 139–147.
| Options for managing hypoxic blackwater events in river systems: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 23137913PubMed |
King, A., Tonkin, Z., and Lieschke, J. (2012). Short-term effects of a prolonged blackwater event on aquatic fauna in the Murray River, Australia: considerations for future events. Marine and Freshwater Research 63, 576–586.
| Short-term effects of a prolonged blackwater event on aquatic fauna in the Murray River, Australia: considerations for future events.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
La, V. T., and Cooke, S. J. (2011). Advancing the science and practice of fish kill investigations. Reviews in Fisheries Science 19, 21–33.
| Advancing the science and practice of fish kill investigations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lambie, S. M., Schipper, L. A., Balks, M. R., and Baisden, W. T. (2012). Carbon leaching from undisturbed soil cores treated with dairy cow urine. Soil Research 50, 320–327.
| Carbon leaching from undisturbed soil cores treated with dairy cow urine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lewin, J., and Ashworth, P. J. (2014). The negative relief of large river floodplains. Earth-Science Reviews 129, 1–23.
| The negative relief of large river floodplains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lundquist, E. J., Jackson, L. E., and Scow, K. M. (1999). Wet–dry cycles affect dissolved organic carbon in two California agricultural soils. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 31, 1031–1038.
| Wet–dry cycles affect dissolved organic carbon in two California agricultural soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mallin, A. M., Johnson, L. V., Ensign, H. S., and MacPherson, A. T. (2006). Factors contributing to hypoxia in rivers, lakes, and streams. Limnology and Oceanography 51, 690–701.
| Factors contributing to hypoxia in rivers, lakes, and streams.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McGinness, H. M., and Arthur, A. D. (2011). Carbon dynamics during flood events in a lowland river: the importance of anabranches. Freshwater Biology 56, 1593–1605.
| Carbon dynamics during flood events in a lowland river: the importance of anabranches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Neilen, A. D., Hawker, D. W., O’Brien, K. R., and Burford, M. A. (2017). Phytotoxic effects of terrestrial dissolved organic matter on a freshwater cyanobacteria and green algae species is affected by plant source and DOM chemical composition. Chemosphere 184, 969–980.
| Phytotoxic effects of terrestrial dissolved organic matter on a freshwater cyanobacteria and green algae species is affected by plant source and DOM chemical composition.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28655116PubMed |
News, A. B. C. (2016). Farmer desperately tries to save native fish from deadly blackwater event in southern Murray–Darling system. Available at https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2016-12-06/farmer-tries-to-save-fish-affected-murray-black-water/8096576 [Verified 17 May 2019].
Nilsson, C., and Berggren, K. (2000). Alterations of riparian ecosystems caused by river regulation dam operations have caused global-scale ecological changes in riparian ecosystems. How to protect river environments and human needs of rivers remains one of the most important questions of our time. Bioscience 50, 783–792.
| Alterations of riparian ecosystems caused by river regulation dam operations have caused global-scale ecological changes in riparian ecosystems. How to protect river environments and human needs of rivers remains one of the most important questions of our time.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nilsson, C., Reidy, C. A., Dynesius, M., and Revenga, C. (2005). Fragmentation and flow regulation of the world’s large river systems. Science 308, 405–408.
| Fragmentation and flow regulation of the world’s large river systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15831757PubMed |
O’Connell, M., Baldwin, D. S., Robertson, A. I., and Rees, G. (2000). Release and bioavailability of dissolved organic matter from floodplain litter: influence of origin and oxygen levels. Freshwater Biology 45, 333–342.
| Release and bioavailability of dissolved organic matter from floodplain litter: influence of origin and oxygen levels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pasco, T. E., Kaller, M. D., Harlan, R., Kelso, W. E., Rutherford, D. A., and Roberts, S. (2016). Predicting floodplain hypoxia in the Atchafalaya River, Louisiana, USA, a large, regulated southern floodplain river System. River Research and Applications 32, 845–855.
| Predicting floodplain hypoxia in the Atchafalaya River, Louisiana, USA, a large, regulated southern floodplain river System.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Peichl, M., Moore, T. R., Arain, M. A., Dalva, M., Brodkey, D., and McLaren, J. (2007). Concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic carbon in an age-sequence of white pine forests in southern Ontario, Canada. Biogeochemistry 86, 1–17.
| Concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic carbon in an age-sequence of white pine forests in southern Ontario, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Qualls, R. G., and Haines, B. L. (1991). Geochemistry of dissolved organic nutrients in water percolating through a forest ecosystem. Soil Science Society of America Journal 55, 1112–1123.
| Geochemistry of dissolved organic nutrients in water percolating through a forest ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robertson, A. I., Bunn, S. E., Boon, P. I., and Walker, K. F. (1999). Sources, sinks and transformations of organic carbon in Australian floodplain rivers. Marine and Freshwater Research 50, 813–829.
| Sources, sinks and transformations of organic carbon in Australian floodplain rivers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scott, J. T., Lambie, S. M., Stevenson, B. A., Schipper, L. A., Parfitt, R. L., and McGill, A. C. (2015). Carbon and nitrogen leaching under high and low phosphate fertility pasture with increasing nitrogen inputs. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 202, 139–147.
| Carbon and nitrogen leaching under high and low phosphate fertility pasture with increasing nitrogen inputs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Small, K., Kopf, R. K., Watts, R. J., and Howitt, J. (2014). Hypoxia, blackwater and fish kills: experimental lethal oxygen thresholds in juvenile predatory lowland river fishes. PLoS One 9, e94524.
| Hypoxia, blackwater and fish kills: experimental lethal oxygen thresholds in juvenile predatory lowland river fishes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24728094PubMed |
Stevenson, F. J., and Cole, M. A. (1999). ‘Cycles of Soil: Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Micronutrients.’ (Wiley: New York, NY, USA.)
Thomas, R. (2018). ‘Mid-Murray 2016–2017 Total Inundation Map.’ (New South Wales, Office of Environment and Heritage: Sydney, NSW Australia)
Tian, L., Dell, E., and Shi, W. (2010). Chemical composition of dissolved organic matter in agroecosystems: correlations with soil enzyme activity and carbon and nitrogen mineralization. Applied Soil Ecology 46, 426–435.
| Chemical composition of dissolved organic matter in agroecosystems: correlations with soil enzyme activity and carbon and nitrogen mineralization.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wallace, T. A., Ganf, G. G., and Brookes, J. D. (2008). A comparison of phosphorus and DOC leachates from different types of leaf litter in an urban environment. Freshwater Biology 53, 1902–1913.
| A comparison of phosphorus and DOC leachates from different types of leaf litter in an urban environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ward, J. V., and Stanford, J. A. (1995). Ecological connectivity in alluvial river ecosystems and its disruption by flow regulation. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 11, 105–119.
| Ecological connectivity in alluvial river ecosystems and its disruption by flow regulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watts, R. J., Kopf, R. K., Hladyz, S., Grace, M., Thompson, R., McCasker, N., Wassens, S., Howitt, J. A., and Conallin, J. (2013). Monitoring of ecosystem responses to the delivery of environmental water in the Edward–Wakool system, 2011–2012. Report 2. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University. A report to the Commonwealth Environmental Water Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Watts, R. J., McCasker, N., Howitt, J. A., Thiem, J., Grace, M., Kopf, R. K., Healy, S. and Bond, N. (2017a). Commonwealth Environmental Water Office Long Term Intervention Monitoring Project: Edward–Wakool River system-selected area evaluation report, 2016–17. Report prepared for Commonwealth Environmental Water Office. Commonwealth of Australia, Albury, NSW Australia.
Watts, R. J., Wolfenden B., Howitt J. A., Jenkins K., McCasker N. and Blakey R. (2017b). Contribution of Koondrook–Perricoota floodplain runoff to the productivity of the Wakool River. Report prepared for Forestry Corporation of New South Wales, Albury, NSW Australia.
Webster, J. R., and Meyer, J. L. (1997). Organic matter budgets for streams: a synthesis. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 16, 141–161.
| Organic matter budgets for streams: a synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whitworth, K. L., and Baldwin, D. S. (2016). Improving our capacity to manage hypoxic blackwater events in lowland rivers: the Blackwater risk assessment tool. Ecological Modelling 320, 292–298.
| Improving our capacity to manage hypoxic blackwater events in lowland rivers: the Blackwater risk assessment tool.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whitworth, K. L., Baldwin, D. S., and Kerr, J. L. (2012). Drought, floods and water quality: drivers of a severe hypoxic blackwater event in a major river system (the southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia). Journal of Hydrology 450–451, 190–198.
| Drought, floods and water quality: drivers of a severe hypoxic blackwater event in a major river system (the southern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Whitworth, K. L., Baldwin, D. S., and Kerr, J. L. (2014). The effect of temperature on leaching and subsequent decomposition of dissolved carbon from inundated floodplain litter: implications for the generation of hypoxic blackwater in lowland floodplain rivers. Chemistry and Ecology 30, 491–500.
| The effect of temperature on leaching and subsequent decomposition of dissolved carbon from inundated floodplain litter: implications for the generation of hypoxic blackwater in lowland floodplain rivers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, J. S., and Baldwin, D. S. (2008). Exploring the ‘birch effect’ in reservoir sediments: influence of inundation history on aerobic nutrient release Chemistry and Ecology 24, 379–386.
| Exploring the ‘birch effect’ in reservoir sediments: influence of inundation history on aerobic nutrient releaseCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wilson, J. S., Baldwin, D. S., Rees, G. N., and Wilson, B. P. (2011). The effects of short-term inundation on carbon dynamics, microbial community structure and microbial activity in floodplain soil. River Research and Applications 27, 213–225.
| The effects of short-term inundation on carbon dynamics, microbial community structure and microbial activity in floodplain soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Woodward, K. B., Fellows, C. S., Mitrovic, S. M., and Sheldon, F. (2015). Patterns and bioavailability of soil nutrients and carbon across a gradient of inundation frequencies in a lowland river channel, Murray–Darling Basin, Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 205, 1–8.
| Patterns and bioavailability of soil nutrients and carbon across a gradient of inundation frequencies in a lowland river channel, Murray–Darling Basin, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Xu, J., Yang, S., Peng, S., Wei, Q., and Gao, X. (2013). Solubility and leaching risks of organic carbon in paddy soils as affected by irrigation managements. The Scientific World Journal 2013, 1–9.