Exploring phosphate effects on leaf flammability using a physical chemistry model
Fiona R. Scarff A C , Brian F. Gray B and Mark Westoby A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.
B School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: tonynfi@gmail.com
International Journal of Wildland Fire 21(8) 1042-1051 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF09065
Submitted: 15 June 2009 Accepted: 23 April 2012 Published: 3 August 2012
Abstract
Some plants have traits that cause them to be more flammable than others, influencing wildfire spread and fire regimes. Some of these plant traits have been identified through laboratory-scale experiments. We built a numerical model that could quantify the extent of these effects on flammability. Here we present that model and use it to investigate the effect of phosphate content on the flammability of leaves. The model used finite-element methods and was based on heat transfer and thermal decomposition kinetics. Predictions were compared with three laboratory experiments involving ignition of leaf or cellulose samples. We then ran simulations of two situations through which leaf phosphate could influence wildfire spread: horizontal fire spread and crowning. The ignition time and maximum fuel gap that could be bridged by a flame front was predicted. Two key results emerged. (1) The importance of leaf phosphate in laboratory studies of ignition depends on the rate of sample heating, with the strongest effect under slow heating. (2) In the context of wildfires, phosphate was predicted to have modest effects compared with other plant traits influencing moisture content, leaf construction and angle of display.
Additional keywords: combustibility, diammonium phosphate, ignitibility, ignition, leaf phosphorus, wildfire.
References
Abramoff MD, Magalhaes PJ, Ram SJ (2004) Image Processing with ImageJ. Biophotonics International 11, 36–42.Albini FA (1985) A model for fire spread in wildland fuels by radiation. Combustion Science and Technology 42, 229–258.
| A model for fire spread in wildland fuels by radiation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Atreya A (1998) Ignition of fires. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences 356, 2787–2813.
| Ignition of fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhtl2hu7k%3D&md5=35cae7240cac24253981d344bb72dfb3CAS |
Babrauskas V (2001) Ignition of wood: a review of the state of the art. In ‘Interflam 2001: Proceedings of the 9th International Interflam Conference’. 17–19 September 2001, Edinburgh, UK. (Interscience Communications: London)
Babrauskas V (2003) ‘Ignition Handbook: Principles and Applications to Fire Safety Engineering, Fire Investigation, Risk Management and Forensic Science.’ (Fire Science Publishers: Isaaquah, WA)
Ball R, McIntosh AC, Brindley J (2004) Feedback processes in cellulose thermal decomposition: implications for fire-retarding strategies and treatments. Combustion Theory and Modelling 8, 281–291.
Bell T, Tolhurst K, Wouters M (2005) Effects of the fire-retardant Phos-Chek on vegetation in eastern Australian heathlands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, 199–211.
| Effects of the fire-retardant Phos-Chek on vegetation in eastern Australian heathlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXmslCgtrc%3D&md5=ad304adba25b12f3533489e30d4ca08bCAS |
Brown S, Mo J, McPherson JK, Bell DT (1996) Decomposition of woody debris in Western Australian forests. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 26, 954–966.
Camino G, Costa L (1988) Performance and mechanisms of fire retardants in polymers – a review. Polymer Degradation & Stability 20, 271–294.
| Performance and mechanisms of fire retardants in polymers – a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXkt1eksrw%3D&md5=12874e3094686b5cefb459661242cb1aCAS |
Catchpole WR, Catchpole EA, Tate AG, Butler B, Rothermel RC (2002) A model for the steady spread of fire through a homogeneous fuel bed. In ‘IV International Conference on Forest Fire Research/2002 Wildland Fire Safety Summit’. 18–23 November 2002, Coimbra, Portugal. (Ed. DX Viegas) pp. 1–11. (Millpress: Coimbra, Portugal)
Coûteaux MM, Aloui A, Kurz-Besson C (2002) Pinus halepensis litter decomposition in laboratory microcosms influenced by temperature and a millipede, Glomeris marginata. Applied Soil Ecology 20, 85–96.
| Pinus halepensis litter decomposition in laboratory microcosms influenced by temperature and a millipede, Glomeris marginata.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di Blasi C (1998) Comparison of semi-global mechanisms for primary pyrolysis of lignocellulosic fuels. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 47, 43–64.
| Comparison of semi-global mechanisms for primary pyrolysis of lignocellulosic fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmt1eltrg%3D&md5=7621cf822ffe610c7ead7e7be31dbda6CAS |
Di Blasi C, Branca C, Galgano A (2007) Effects of diammonium phosphate on the yields and composition of products from wood pyrolysis. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 46, 430–438.
| Effects of diammonium phosphate on the yields and composition of products from wood pyrolysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xht1yrt77N&md5=b8a556ab8b55d93862ed97a8d4c78809CAS |
Di Blasi C, Branca C, Galgano A (2008) Thermal and catalytic decomposition of wood impregnated with sulfur- and phosphorus-containing ammonia salts. Polymer Degradation & Stability 93, 335–346.
| Thermal and catalytic decomposition of wood impregnated with sulfur- and phosphorus-containing ammonia salts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhvFeltrw%3D&md5=40270ca44011c3282e3155c4d634959eCAS |
Dupuy JL, Larini M (1999) Fire spread through a porous forest fuel bed: a radiative and convective model including fire-induced flow effects. International Journal of Wildland Fire 9, 155–172.
| Fire spread through a porous forest fuel bed: a radiative and convective model including fire-induced flow effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Engstrom JD, Butler JK, Smith SG, Baxter LL, Fletcher TH (2004) Ignition behaviour of live California chaparral leaves. Combustion Science and Technology 176, 1577–1591.
| Ignition behaviour of live California chaparral leaves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXnt1Wiu7w%3D&md5=7f7055f39f8738c00eda377796c85405CAS |
Gill AM, Moore PHR (1996) ‘Ignitability of Leaves of Australian Plants.’ (CSIRO Division of Plant Industry: Canberra, ACT)
Gill AM, Zylstra P (2005) Flammability of Australian forests. Australian Forestry 68, 87–93.
Gillon D, Houssard C, Valette JC, Rigolot E (1999) Nitrogen and phosphorus cycling following prescribed burning in natural and managed Aleppo pine forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 29, 1237–1247.
| Nitrogen and phosphorus cycling following prescribed burning in natural and managed Aleppo pine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gould JS, Knight I, Sullivan AL (1997) Physical modelling of leaf scorch height from prescribed fires in young Eucalyptus sieberi regrowth forests in south-eastern Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 7, 7–20.
| Physical modelling of leaf scorch height from prescribed fires in young Eucalyptus sieberi regrowth forests in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Güsewell S (2004) N : P ratios in terrestrial plants: variation and functional significance. New Phytologist 164, 243–266.
| N : P ratios in terrestrial plants: variation and functional significance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hernandez JJ, Serrano C, Perez J (2006) Prediction of the autoignition delay time of producer gas from biomass gasification. Energy & Fuels 20, 532–539.
| Prediction of the autoignition delay time of producer gas from biomass gasification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtlarsrfJ&md5=73ddde144d9d0adf447791807aa6f8c1CAS |
Howell JR (2001) ‘A Catalog of Radiation Heat Transfer Configuration Factors.’ (University of Texas: Austin, TX)
Kandola BK, Horrocks AR, Price D, Coleman GV (1996) Flame-retardant treatments of cellulose and their influence on the mechanism of cellulose pyrolysis. The Polish Review C36, 721–794.
Koufopanos CA, Maschio G, Lucchesi A (1989) Kinetic modelling of the pyrolysis of biomass and biomass components. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 67, 75–84.
| Kinetic modelling of the pyrolysis of biomass and biomass components.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXhtFyhsLk%3D&md5=d1d6bbdc68dff4d2964725bae62926d7CAS |
Lenz T, Wright I, Westoby M (2006) Interrelations among pressure–volume curve traits across species and water availability gradients. Physiologia Plantarum 127, 423–433.
| Interrelations among pressure–volume curve traits across species and water availability gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XosVKgsrw%3D&md5=0e54bb7df0b680f9757cdf115de39a87CAS |
Liodakis S, Bakirtzis D, Lois E, Gakis D (2002) The effect of (NH4)2HPO4 and (NH4)2SO4 on the spontaneous ignition properties of Pinus halepensis pine needles. Fire Safety Journal 37, 481–494.
| The effect of (NH4)2HPO4 and (NH4)2SO4 on the spontaneous ignition properties of Pinus halepensis pine needles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XisVOqs7s%3D&md5=e6e9306c62f88465fc2c3607bb891ad8CAS |
Mak EHT (1982) The relationship between the nutrient status and flammability of forest fuels. PhD Thesis, Department of Forestry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT.
Mak EHT (1988) Measuring foliar flammability with the Limiting Oxygen Index method. Forest Science 34, 523–529.
Marschner H (1995) ‘Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants.’ (Academic Press: Sydney)
Miller RS, Bellan J (1997) A generalized biomass pyrolysis model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin kinetics. Combustion Science and Technology 126, 97–137.
| A generalized biomass pyrolysis model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin kinetics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXislSku70%3D&md5=9750cacee38d23126c479a6da1a97a49CAS |
Montgomery KR, Cheo PC (1971) Effect of leaf thickness on ignitibility. Forest Science 17, 475–478.
Niinemets U (1999) Research review: components of leaf dry mass per area – thickness and density – alter leaf photosynthetic capacity in reverse directions in woody plants. New Phytologist 144, 35–47.
| Research review: components of leaf dry mass per area – thickness and density – alter leaf photosynthetic capacity in reverse directions in woody plants.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nussbaum RM (1988) The effect of low-concentration fire retardant impregnations on wood charring rate and char yield. Journal of Fire Sciences 6, 290–307.
| The effect of low-concentration fire retardant impregnations on wood charring rate and char yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXhslGgsr0%3D&md5=6a987c051ace8e6d7ed1cf14cc433d67CAS |
Ohlemiller T, Shields J (1993) One- and two-sided burning of thermally thin materials. Fire and Materials 17, 103–110.
| One- and two-sided burning of thermally thin materials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXltlGksLg%3D&md5=fc669f0aec038d07608962d225db417aCAS |
Ormeño E, Céspedes B, Sánchez IA, Velasco-García A, Moreno JM, Fernandez C, Baldy V (2009) The relationship between terpenes and flammability of leaf litter. Forest Ecology and Management 257, 471–482.
| The relationship between terpenes and flammability of leaf litter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Owens MK, Lin C-D, Taylor CA, Whisenant SG (1998) Seasonal patterns of plant flammability and monoterpenoid content in Juniperus ashei. Journal of Chemical Ecology 24, 2115–2129.
| Seasonal patterns of plant flammability and monoterpenoid content in Juniperus ashei.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Petterson RC (1984) The chemical composition of wood. In ‘Chemistry of solid wood’. Adv. Chem. Series 207. (Ed. R Rowell) pp. 57–126. (American Chemical Society: Washington, DC)
Philpot CW (1970) Influence of mineral content on the pyrolysis of plant materials. Forest Science 16, 461–471.
Roderick ML, Berry SL, Saunders AR, Noble IR (1999) On the relationship between the composition, morphology and function of leaves. Functional Ecology 13, 696–710.
| On the relationship between the composition, morphology and function of leaves.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Rothermel RC (1972) A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. USDA Forest Service, Research Paper INT-115. Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, Utah.
Scarff FR, Westoby M (2006) Leaf litter flammability in some semi-arid Australian woodlands. Functional Ecology 20, 745–752.
| Leaf litter flammability in some semi-arid Australian woodlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Scarff FR, Westoby M (2008) The influence of tissue phosphate on plant flammability: a kinetic study. Polymer Degradation & Stability 93, 1930–1934.
| The influence of tissue phosphate on plant flammability: a kinetic study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtF2kurvP&md5=5c9d896fc39c144b78d422cb8fcff543CAS |
Shafizadeh F, Bradbury AGW, Degroot WF, Aanerud TW (1982) Role of inorganic additives in the smoldering combustion of cotton cellulose. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development 21, 97–101.
| Role of inorganic additives in the smoldering combustion of cotton cellulose.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XntVentg%3D%3D&md5=60f3b5e5ec22a3861ece2615b9e1178fCAS |
Spearpoint MJ, Quintiere JG (2000) Predicting the burning of wood using an integral model. Combustion and Flame 123, 308–325.
| Predicting the burning of wood using an integral model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXntFCqsrg%3D&md5=a546486bbcad75ecf6601ed75e1117b5CAS |
Sullivan AL, Ball R (2012) Thermal decomposition and combustion chemistry of cellulosic biomass. Atmospheric Environment 47, 133–141.
| Thermal decomposition and combustion chemistry of cellulosic biomass.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhs1KrtbzI&md5=02a9df5df32971104aa7f66ddde189eeCAS |
Troitzsch JH (1998) Overview of flame retardants. Chimica Oggi 16, 18–24.
Vines RG (1981) Physics and chemistry of rural fires. In ‘Fire and the Australian Biota’. (Eds RM Gill, RH Groves, IR Noble) pp. 129–149. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra, ACT)
Weise DR, White RH, Beall FC, Etlinger MG (2005) Use of the cone calorimeter to detect seasonal differences in selected combustion characteristics of ornamental vegetation. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, 321–338.
| Use of the cone calorimeter to detect seasonal differences in selected combustion characteristics of ornamental vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wright IJ, Reich PB, Westoby M, Ackerly DD, Baruch Z, Bongers F, Cavender-Bares J, Chapin T, Cornelissen JHC, Diemer M, Flexas J, Garnier E, Groom PK, Gulias J, Hikosaka K, Lamont BB, Lee T, Lee W, Lusk C, Midgely JJ, Navas M-L, Niinemets Ü, Oleksyn J, Osada N, Poorter H, Poot P, Prior L, Pyankov VI, Roumet C, Thomas SC, Tjoelker MG, Veneklaas EJ, Villar R (2004) The world-wide leaf economics spectrum. Nature 428, 821–827.
| The world-wide leaf economics spectrum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjt1Crt74%3D&md5=7378380520755eeb983439bb1cc613eaCAS |
