Review of thermal behaviour of firebrands and their role in fuel bed and structure ignition

Osman Eissa; Alexander I. Filkov; Maryam Ghodrat

doi:10.1071/WF25021

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Previous Next Contents Vol 34(6)

Review of thermal behaviour of firebrands and their role in fuel bed and structure ignition

Osman Eissa ^A ^* , Alexander I. Filkov

^B and Maryam Ghodrat

^A ^*

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A School of Engineering and Technology, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia.

^B Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, 4 Water Street, Creswick, 3350, Australia.

^* Correspondence to: o.eissa@unsw.edu.au, m.ghodrat@unsw.edu.au

International Journal of Wildland Fire 34, WF25021 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF25021

Submitted: 31 January 2025 Accepted: 23 April 2025 Published: 26 May 2025

© 2025 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of IAWF. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Firebrands or embers are a crucial phenomenon in wildfire behaviour. Firebrands – small, burning or smouldering pieces of wood or other flammable materials – can be carried by wind considerable distances, leading to ignition of new fires ahead of the main fire front. This process, called spotting, significantly contributes to the rapid spread of fires, particularly in wildland–urban interface (WUI) areas. Spot fires pose a severe threat to people and properties. Better understanding the thermal behaviour of firebrands and their ability to ignite various natural fuel beds and structural materials is crucial for developing effective fire prevention and mitigation strategies. This paper presents a comprehensive review of recent studies investigating the thermal behaviour of firebrands and their interaction with natural and structural fuels. These intensive research efforts have focused on predicting firebrand behaviour in spot fires through experimental studies, numerical simulations and statistical modelling to identify factors influencing ignition likelihood. This review explores the mechanisms through which firebrands interact with vegetative and building materials, focusing on ignition and subsequent fire spread. Critical factors, such as material composition, moisture content and firebrand accumulation, are discussed. This study also identifies critical knowledge gaps and proposes future research directions to ultimately contribute to more effective wildfire mitigation and management strategies.

Keywords: embers, firebrand pile, firebrand shower, firebrands, ignition, spot fire, thermal behaviour, wildfires, WUI.

References

Abul-Huda YM, Bouvet N (2021) Thermal dynamics of deposited firebrands using phosphor thermometry. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 38, 4757-4765.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Adusumilli S, Blunck D (2022) Energy deposition by firebrands generated from tree-scale burns. In ‘2022 WSSCI Spring Technical Meeting Organized by the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute, Stanford, CA’.

Adusumilli S, Blunck DL (2023) Size and energy distribution of firebrands produced from burning trees. Fire Safety Journal 138, 103800.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Alascio JA (2021) Firebrand pile thermal characterization and ignition study of firebrand exposed western red cedar. DRUM – University of Maryland, USA. 10.13016/bln8-d4np

Albert CM, Liew KC (2024) Recent development and challenges in enhancing fire performance on wood and wood-based composites: a 10-year review from 2012 to 2021. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts 9, 27-42.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Albini FA (1979) ‘Spot fire distance from burning trees: a predictive model.’ (Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service: US)

Albini FA (1983) ‘Potential spotting distance from wind-driven surface fires.’ (USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range: US)

Almeida M, Viegas DX, Miranda AI, Reva V (2011) Effect of particle orientation and of flow velocity on the combustibility of Pinus pinaster and Eucalyptus globulus firebrand material. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 946-962.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Álvarez C, Moreno G, Valenzuela F, Rivera JI, Ebensperger F, Reszka P, Fuentes A (2023) Use of an electric heater as an idealized firebrand to determine ignition delay time of Eucalyptus globulus leaves. Fire Safety Journal 141, 103923.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Arruda MRT, Cantor P, Bicelli A, Branco F (2024) Thermal reaction of firebrand accumulation in construction materials. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20, e02985.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Atreya A, Abu-Zaid M (1991) Effect of environmental variables on piloted ignition. Fire Safety Science 3, 177-186.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Atwood L, Wagenbrenner N (2022) A numerical investigation exploring the potential role of porous fencing in reducing firebrand impingement on homes. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 8, 1059018.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Baldwin JH, Sunderland PB (2023) Ratio pyrometry of emulated firebrand streaks. Fire Safety Journal 136, 103746.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Banagiri S, Meadows J, Lattimer BY (2023) A computational fluid dynamics model to estimate local quantities in firebrand char oxidation. Journal of Fire Sciences 41, 241-268.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bean D, Blunck DL (2021) Sensitivities of porous beds and plates to ignition by firebrands. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 7, 653810.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bearinger ED (2021) Factors affecting heat transfer from firebrands and firebrand piles and the ignition of building materials. Available at https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252086242

Bearinger E, Lattimer BY, Hodges JL, Rippe C, Kapahi A (2021a) Statistical assessment of parameters affecting firebrand pile heat transfer to surfaces. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 7, 702181.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bearinger ED, Hodges JL, Yang F, Rippe CM, Lattimer BY (2021b) Localized heat transfer from firebrands to surfaces. Fire Safety Journal 120, 103037.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bicelli AR, Cantor P, Arruda MR, Tiago C, Bernardes De Assis E, Branco F (2023) Numerical assessment of standard firebrand accumulation curve when transferring temperature to contact surfaces. Applied Sciences 13, 9657.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Burton JE, Filkov AI, Pickering BJ, Penman TD, Cawson JG (2023) Quantifying litter bed ignitability: comparison of a laboratory and field method. Fire 6, 24.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Campbell-Lochrie Z, Walker-Ravena C, Gallagher M, Skowronski N, Mueller EV, Hadden RM (2021) Investigation of the role of bulk properties and in-bed structure in the flow regime of buoyancy-dominated flame spread in porous fuel beds. Fire Safety Journal 120, 103035.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cantor P, Arruda MRT, Firmo J, Branco F (2023) Development of a standard firebrand accumulation temperature curve for residential wildfire protection system. Results in Engineering 17, 100935.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Caton SE, Hakes RS, Gorham DJ, Zhou A, Gollner MJ (2017) Review of pathways for building fire spread in the wildland–urban interface. Part I: Exposure conditions. Fire Technology 53, 429-473.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cawson JG, Pickering BJ, Filkov AI, Burton JE, Kilinc M, Penman TD (2022) Predicting ignitability from firebrands in mature wet eucalypt forests. Forest Ecology and Management 519, 120315.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Claridge E, Spearpoint M (2013) New Zealand Fire Service response times to structure fires. Procedia Engineering 62, 1063-1072.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cohen JD, Stratton RD (2008) Home destruction examination – Grass Valley fire, Report R5-TP-026b. (USDA Forest Service)

Cruz MG, Sullivan AL, Gould JS, Sims NC, Bannister AJ, Hollis JJ, Hurley RJ (2012) Anatomy of a catastrophic wildfire: the Black Saturday Kilmore East Fire in Victoria, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 284, 269-285.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

De Beer JA, Alascio JA, Stoliarov SI, Gollner MJ (2023a) Analysis of the thermal exposure and ignition propensity of a lignocellulosic building material subjected to a controlled deposition of glowing firebrands. Fire Safety Journal 135, 103720.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

De Beer JA, Dietz EL, Stoliarov SI, Gollner MJ (2023b) An empirical firebrand pile heat flux model. Fire Safety Journal 141, 104004.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Donovan VM, Crandall R, Fill J, Wonkka CL (2023) Increasing large wildfire in the eastern United States. Geophysical Research Letters 50, e2023GL107051.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dossi S, Rein G (2022) Modelling wildfire firebrand accumulation in front of walls perpendicular to the wind. In ‘Advances in Forest Fire Research 2022’ Chapter 2. pp. 706–713. 10.14195/978-989-26-2298-9_108

Dossi S, Węgrzyński W, Rein G (2025) Exploratory Simulations on the effectiveness of sand protection strategies against firebrand accumulation in wildfires. Fire and Materials 2025,.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dowling VP (1994) Ignition of timber bridges in bushfires. Fire Safety Journal 22, 145-168.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ellis P (2000) The aerodynamic and combustion characteristics of eucalypt bark: a firebrand study. Available at http://hdl.handle.net/1885/49422

Ellis PFM (2011) Fuelbed ignition potential and bark morphology explain the notoriety of the eucalypt messmate ‘stringybark’ for intense spotting. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 897-907.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ellis PFM (2015) The likelihood of ignition of dry-eucalypt forest litter by firebrands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 225-235.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fang W, Peng Z, Chen H (2021) Ignition of pine needle fuel bed by the coupled effects of a hot metal particle and thermal radiation. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 38, 5101-5108.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fang W, Yang J, Chen H, Zhang L, Guo P, Yuan Y (2023) Effect of wind velocity on smoldering ignition of moist pine needles by a glowing firebrand. Fire Technology 60, 501-517.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fateev V, Agafontsev M, Volkov S, Filkov A (2017) Determination of smoldering time and thermal characteristics of firebrands under laboratory conditions. Fire Safety Journal 91, 791-799.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fernandez-Pello AC (2017) Wildland fire spot ignition by sparks and firebrands. Fire Safety Journal 91, 2-10.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fernandez-Pello AC, Lautenberger C, Rich D, Zak C, Urban J, Hadden R, Scott S, Fereres S (2015) Spot fire ignition of natural fuel beds by hot metal particles, embers, and sparks. Combustion Science and Technology 187, 269-295.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Filkov A, Kasymov D, Zima V, Matvienko O (2016) Experimental investigation of surface litter ignition by bark firebrands. AIP Conference Proceedings 1698, 060004.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Filkov A, Prohanov S, Mueller E, Kasymov D, Martynov P, Houssami ME, Thomas J, Skowronski N, Butler B, Gallagher M, Clark K, Mell W, Kremens R, Hadden RM, Simeoni A (2017) Investigation of firebrand production during prescribed fires conducted in a pine forest. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 36, 3263-3270.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Filkov AI, Ngo T, Matthews S, Telfer S, Penman TD (2020) Impact of Australia’s catastrophic 2019/20 bushfire season on communities and environment. Retrospective analysis and current trends. Journal of Safety Science and Resilience 1, 44-56.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Filkov AI, Tihay-Felicelli V, Masoudvaziri N, Rush D, Valencia A, Wang Y, Blunck DL, Valero MM, Kempna K, Smolka J (2023) A review of thermal exposure and fire spread mechanisms in large outdoor fires and the built environment. Fire Safety Journal 140, 103871.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ganteaume A, Lampin-Maillet C, Guijarro M, Hernando C, Jappiot M, Fontúrbel T, Pérez-Gorostiaga P, Vega JA (2009) Spot fires: fuel bed flammability and capability of firebrands to ignite fuel beds. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 951-969.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ganteaume A, Guijarro M, Jappiot M, Hernando C, Lampin-Maillet C, Pérez-Gorostiaga P, Vega JA (2011) Laboratory characterization of firebrands involved in spot fires. Annals of Forest Science 68, 531-541.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gaudet B, Simeoni A, Gwynne S, Kuligowski E, Benichou N (2020) A review of post-incident studies for wildland–urban interface fires. Journal of Safety Science and Resilience 1, 59-65.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gellerman K, Chien Y-C (2023) Modeling ember behavior and accumulation patterns on and around sample homes during a wildfire. Available at https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2zz0j0ts

Green A, Kaye NB (2019) On the use of sprays to intercept airborne embers during wildfires. Fire Safety Journal 108, 102842.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hadden RM, Scott S, Lautenberger C, Fernandez-Pello AC (2011) Ignition of combustible fuel beds by hot particles: an experimental and theoretical study. Fire Technology 47, 341-355.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hakes RSP, Salehizadeh H, Weston-Dawkes MJ, Gollner MJ (2019) Thermal characterization of firebrand piles. Fire Safety Journal 104, 34-42.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hashempour J, Sharifian A (2017) Effective factors on the performance of woven wire screens against leaf firebrand attacks. Journal of Fire Sciences 35, 303-316.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Haynes K, Short K, Xanthopoulos G, Viegas D, Ribeiro LM, Blanchi R (2020) Wildfires and WUI fire fatalities. In ‘Encyclopedia of Wildfires and Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI) Fires’. (Ed. SL Manzello) pp. 1–16. (Springer: Cham, Switzerland)

He Q, Liu N, Xie X, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Yan W (2021) Experimental study on fire spread over discrete fuel bed – Part I: Effects of packing ratio. Fire Safety Journal 126, 103470.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hedayati F, Bahrani B, Zhou A, Quarles SL, Gorham DJ (2019) A framework to facilitate firebrand characterization. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 5, 43.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Henriques-Gomes L (2020) Bushfires death toll rises to 33 after body found in burnt out house near Moruya. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/jan/24/bushfires-death-toll-rises-to-33-after-body-found-in-burnt-out-housenear-moruya

Hernández N, Fuentes A, Consalvi JL, Elicer-Cortés JC (2018) Spontaneous ignition of wildland fuel by idealized firebrands. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 95, 88-95.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Jervis FX, Rein G (2016a) Experimental study on the burning behaviour of Pinus halepensis needles using small‐scale fire calorimetry of live, aged and dead samples. Fire and Materials 40, 385-395.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ju X, Lisano M, Hajilou M, Sunderland PB, Stoliarov SI, Yang L, Gollner MJ (2024) Quantification of firebrand generation from WUI fuels for model development: firebrand generation rate, surface temperature and heat release rate. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 40, 105729.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Karimpour A, Kaye N (2012) On the stochastic nature of compact debris flight. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 100, 77-90.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kasymov D, Filkov A, Baydarov D, Sharypov O (2016) ‘Interaction of smoldering branches and pine bark firebrands with fuel bed at different ambient conditions’ (SPIE)

Kasymov D, Agafontsev M, Fateyev VN, Reyno V, Filkov A (2018) ‘Critical conditions for the ignition of cedar needle fuel bed as a result of firebrands accumulation. In ‘VIII International Conference on Forest Fire Research’. 10.14195/978-989-26-16-506_173

Kasymov DP, Tarakanova VA, Martynov PS, Agafontsev MV (2019) Studying firebrands interaction with flat surface of various wood construction materials in laboratory conditions. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1359, 012092.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kasymov DP, Agafontsev MV, Perminov VV, Loboda EL, Loboda YA, Reino VV, Orlov KE (2023) Ignition resistance of wood building structures exposed to a firebrand shower. Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 59, 206-214.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kim DK, Sunderland PB (2019) Fire ember pyrometry using a color camera. Fire Safety Journal 106, 88-93.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Koo E, Pagni PJ, Weise DR, Woycheese JP (2010) Firebrands and spotting ignition in large-scale fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 818-843.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kramer HA, Mockrin MH, Alexandre PM, Stewart SI, Radeloff VC (2018) Where wildfires destroy buildings in the US relative to the wildland–urban interface and national fire outreach programs. International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, 329-341.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kwon B, Liao Y-T (2022a) Ignition propensity of structural materials exposed to multiple firebrands in wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires: effects of firebrand distribution and ambient wind. In ‘2022 Spring Technical Meeting of the Central States Section of the Combustion Institute, Detroit, Michigan’.

Kwon B, Liao Y-TT (2022b) Effects of spacing on flaming and smoldering firebrands in wildland–urban interface fires. Journal of Fire Sciences 40, 155-174.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lampin-Maillet C, Mantzavelas A, Galiana L, Jappiot M, Long M, Herrero G, Karlsson O, Iossifina A, Thalia L, Thanassis P (2010). Wildland urban interfaces, fire behaviour and vulnerability: characterization, mapping and assessment. In ‘Towards Integrated Fire Management-Outcomes of the European Project Fire Paradox’. (Ed. C Lampin-Maillet) pp. 71–91. (European Forest Institute)

Lattimer BY, Wong S, Hodges J (2022) A theoretical model to understand some aspects of firebrand pile burning. Fire Technology 58, 3353-3384.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lautenberger C, Fernandez-Pello AC (2009) Spotting ignition of fuel beds by firebrands. In ‘Computational Methods and Experimental Measurements XIV. Vol. 48’ (WIT Transactions on Modelling and Simulation) 10.2495/CMEM090541

Lauterbach A, Lee S, De Beer J, Stoliarov SI, Sunderland PB, Gollner MJ, Filkov AI, Horn GP (2024) Ignition and combustion behavior of pressure treated wood and wood-plastic composite exposed to glowing firebrand piles: impact of air flow velocity, firebrand coverage density and pile orientation. Fire Safety Journal 147, 104198.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Leonard J, Blanchi R (2005) Investigation of bushfire attack mechanisms resulting in house loss in the ACT bushfire 2003. Bushfire CRC Report CMIT Technical Report-2005-478. (Bushfire Co-operative Research Centre: Melbourne)

Liang C, Du Y, Wang Y, Ma A, Huang S, Ma Z (2021) Intumescent fire-retardant coatings for ancient wooden architectures with ideal electromagnetic interference shielding. Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 4, 979-988.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lin S, Li C, Conkling M, Huang X, Quarles SL, Gollner MJ (2024a) Smoldering ignition and transition to flaming in wooden mulch beds exposed to firebrands under wind. Fire Safety Journal 148, 104226.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lin S, Zhang T, Huang X, Gollner MJ (2024b) The initiation of smouldering peat fire by a glowing firebrand. International Journal of Wildland Fire 33, WF23116.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lu H, Ip L-T, Mackrory A, Werrett L, Scott J, Tree D, Baxter L (2008) Particle surface temperature measurements with multicolor band pyrometry. AIChE Journal 55, 243-255.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL (2019) On the importance of firebrand processes in large outdoor fires. Journal of the Combustion Society of Japan 61, 96-100.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Manzello S, Suzuki S (2014) Exposing Decking Assemblies to Continuous Wind-Driven Firebrand Showers. In ‘Fire Safety Science - Proceedings of the Eleventh International Symposium’, Christchurch, NZ. Available at https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=913383 [accessed 8 May 2025]

Manzello SL, Suzuki S (2019) Influence of board spacing on mitigating wood decking assembly ignition. Fire Safety Journal 110, 102913.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Manzello SL, Suzuki S (2023) The world is burning: what exactly are firebrands and why should anyone care? Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 8,.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Cleary TG, Shields JR, Yang JC (2005a) Urban–wildland fires: on the ignition of surfaces by embers. In ‘Proceedings of the 4th Joint Meeting of the US Sections of Combustion Institute’. (Ed. S Turns) pp. 1–8. (Citeseer)

Manzello S, Shields JR, Cleary TG, Yang JC (2005b). Ignition of mulch by firebrands in Wildland/Urban Interface (WUI) fires. In ‘The Joint Meeting of the Sixth Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorology and the | 19th | Interior West Fire Council Meeting | AMS’, 25–27 October 2005, Alberta, 1, CA. pp. 267–270. (International Symposium on Fire and Forest Meterology)

Manzello SL, Cleary TG, Shields JR, Yang JC (2006a) Ignition of mulch and grasses by firebrands in wildland–urban interface fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 427-431.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello S, Cleary T, Shields J, Yang J (2006b) On the ignition of fuel beds by firebrands. Fire and Materials 30, 77-87.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Maranghides A, Mell WE (2007a) Firebrand generation from burning vegetation. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 458-462.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello S, Shields J, Yang J, Hayashi Y, Nii D (2007b) On the use of a firebrand generator to investigate the ignition of structures in wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires. In ‘International Interflam Conference 11th Proceedings’, 3–5 September 2007, London, England. Available at https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=900080 [accessed 8 May 2025]

Manzello SL, Cleary TG, Shields JR, Maranghides A, Mell W, Yang JC (2008a) Experimental investigation of firebrands: generation and ignition of fuel beds. Fire Safety Journal 43, 226-233.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Shields JR, Cleary TG, Maranghides A, Mell WE, Yang JC, Hayashi Y, Nii D, Kurita T (2008b) On the development and characterization of a firebrand generator. Fire Safety Journal 43, 258-268.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello S, Shields J, Hayashi Y, Nii D (2009a) Investigating the vulnerabilities of structures to ignition from a firebrand attack. Fire Safety Science 9, 143-154.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Park S-H, Cleary TG (2009b) Investigation on the ability of glowing firebrands deposited within crevices to ignite common building materials. Fire Safety Journal 44, 894-900.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Hayashi Y, Yoneki T, Yamamoto Y (2010) Quantifying the vulnerabilities of ceramic tile roofing assemblies to ignition during a firebrand attack. Fire Safety Journal 45, 35-43.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Park S-H, Suzuki S, Shields JR, Hayashi Y (2011) Experimental investigation of structure vulnerabilities to firebrand showers. Fire Safety Journal 46, 568-578.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Suzuki S, Hayashi Y (2012) Exposing siding treatments, walls fitted with eaves, and glazing assemblies to firebrand showers. Fire Safety Journal 50, 25-34.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Yamada T, Jeffers A, Ohmiya Y, Himoto K, Carlos Fernandez-Pello A (2013) Summary of workshop for fire structure interaction and urban and wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires – Operation Tomodachi fire research. Fire Safety Journal 59, 122-131.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Manzello SL, Suzuki S, Nii D (2017) Full-scale experimental investigation to quantify building component ignition vulnerability from mulch beds attacked by firebrand showers. Fire Technology 53, 535-551.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Manzello SL, Suzuki S, Gollner MJ, Fernandez-Pello AC (2020) Role of firebrand combustion in large outdoor fire spread. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 76, 100801.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Maranghides A, Mell W (2011) A case study of a community affected by the Witch and Guejito wildland fires. Fire Technology 47, 379-420.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Matvienko OV, Kasymov DP, Filkov AI, Daneyko OI, Gorbatov DA (2018) Simulation of fuel bed ignition by wildland firebrands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, 550-561.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Matvienko O, Kasymov D, Loboda E, Lutsenko A, Daneyko O (2022) Modeling of wood surface ignition by wildland firebrands. Fire 5, 38.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Matvienko O, Kasymov D, Loboda E, Lutsenko A, Daneyko O (2023) Simulation of the impact of firebrands on the process of the wood layer ignition. Fire 6, 148.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

McGrattan K, Mcdermott R, Weinschenk C, Forney G (2013) ‘Fire Dynamics Simulator, Technical Reference Guide’, 6th edn. Special Publication (NIST SP). (National Institute of Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD)

Meerpoel-Pietri K, Tihay-Felicelli V, Santoni P-A (2021) Determination of the critical conditions leading to the ignition of decking slabs by flaming firebrands. Fire Safety Journal 120, 103017.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mensch AE, Wessies SS, Hamins A, Yang JC (2023a) Measuring firebrand heat flux with a thin-skin calorimeter. Fire Safety Journal 140, 103859.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mensch A, Wessies S, Hamins A, Yang J (2023b) Experimental studies on the heat flux of individual firebrands. In ‘13th US National Combustion Meeting Organized by the Central States Section of the Combustion Institute’. College Station, Texas, USA. https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=936167 [accessed 8 May 2025]

Moghtaderi B, Poespowati T, Kennedy EM, Dlugogorski BZ (2007) The role of extinction on the re-ignition potential of wood-based embers in bushfires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 547-555.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nazare S, Leventon I, Davis R (2021) ‘Ignitibility of structural wood products exposed to embers during wildland fires: a review of literature. Technical Note (NIST TN).’ (National Institute of Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD)

Nguyen D, Kaye NB (2021) Experimental investigation of rooftop hotspots during wildfire ember storms. Fire Safety Journal 125, 103445.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nguyen D, Kaye NB (2022a) Quantification of ember accumulation on the rooftops of isolated buildings in an ember storm. Fire Safety Journal 128, 103525.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nguyen D, Kaye NB (2022b) The role of surrounding buildings on the accumulation of embers on rooftops during an ember storm. Fire Safety Journal 131, 103624.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Prohanov S, Filkov A, Kasymov D, Agafontsev M, Reyno V (2020) Determination of firebrand characteristics using thermal videos. Fire 3, 68.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Qin Y, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Lin S, Huang X (2024) Minimum oxygen supply rate for smouldering propagation: effect of fuel bulk density and particle size. Combustion and Flame 261, 113292.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Quarles SL, Sindelar M (2011) Wildfire ignition resistant home design(WIRHD) program: full-scale testing and demonstration final report. (USDA Forest Service Savannah River, New Ellenton, SC: United States)

Quarles S, Standohar-Alfano C (2018) Ignition potential of decks subjected to an ember exposure. Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety. Available at https://ibhs. org/wp-content/uploads/Ignition-Potential-of-Decks-Subjected-to-an-Ember-Exposure. pdf [verified 7 September 2022]

Radeloff VC, Helmers DP, Kramer HA, Mockrin MH, Alexandre PM, Bar-Massada A, Butsic V, Hawbaker TJ, Martinuzzi S, Syphard AD, Stewart SI (2018) Rapid growth of the US wildland–urban interface raises wildfire risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, 3314-3319.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Ramsey ML, Murphy M, Diaz J (2020) The Camp Fire public report: a summary of the Camp Fire investigation. (Oroville, CA)

Reszka P, Fuentes A (2014) The Great Valparaiso: fire and fire safety management in Chile. Fire Technology 51, 753-758.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Reszka P, Cruz JJ, Valdivia J, González F, Rivera J, Carvajal C, Fuentes A (2020) Ignition delay times of live and dead Pinus radiata needles. Fire Safety Journal 112, 102948.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Reveco M, Álvarez C, Gallardo J, Valenzuela F, Severino G, Fuentes A, Reszka P, Demarco R (2024) Effect of moisture content on the spotting ignition of live wildland fuels. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 40, 105275.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Richter F, Bathras B, Barbetta Duarte J, Gollner MJ (2022) The propensity of wooden crevices to smoldering ignition by firebrands. Fire Technology 58, 2167-2188.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Rissel S, Ridenour K (2013) Ember production during the Bastrop Complex fire. Fire Management Today 72, 7-13.
| Google Scholar |

Rivera J, Hernández N, Consalvi JL, Reszka P, Contreras J, Fuentes A (2020) Ignition of wildland fuels by idealized firebrands. Fire Safety Journal 120, 103036.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Salehizadeh H, Hakes RSP, Gollner MJ (2021) Critical ignition conditions of wood by cylindrical firebrands. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 7, 630324.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Santamaria S, Kempná K, Thomas JC, Houssami ME, Mueller EV, Kasimov D, Filkov AI, Gallagher MR, Skowronski NS, Hadden RM, Simeoni A (2015) Investigation of structural wood ignition by firebrand accumulation. In ‘The First International Conference on Structural Safety under Fire & Blas’, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.

Scott S, Hadden R, Yun A, Lautenberger C, Fernandez-Pello AC (2011) Ignition of cellulose fuel beds by hot metal particles. In ‘Safety and Security Engineering IV. Vol. 117’. 10.2495/SAFE110231

Sharifian A, Hashempour J (2016a) A novel ember shower simulator for assessing performance of low porosity screens at high wind speeds against firebrand attacks. Journal of Fire Sciences 34, 335-355.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sharifian A, Hashempour J (2016b) The performance of a woven wire screen against firebrand showers under different wind speeds. In ‘20th Australasian Fluid Mechanic Conference’, Perth, Australia.

Sharifian A, Hashempour J (2020) Wind tunnel experiments on effects of woven wire screens and buffer zones in mitigating risks associated with firebrand showers. Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering 18, 156-168.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sharifian Barforoush A, du Preez M (2022) Quantifying the effectiveness of a mesh in mitigating burning capabilities of firebrand shower. Fire 5, 150.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Song J, Huang X, Liu N, Li H, Zhang L (2017) The wind effect on the transport and burning of firebrands. Fire Technology 53, 1555-1568.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sun P, Zhang Y, Sun L, Hu H, Guo F, Wang G, Zhang H (2018) Influence of fuel moisture content, packing ratio and wind velocity on the ignition probability of fuel beds composed of Mongolian oak leaves via cigarette butts. Forests 9, 507.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2017a) Experimental investigation of firebrand accumulation zones in front of obstacles. Fire Safety Journal 94, 1-7.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2017b) Experiments to provide the scientific-basis for laboratory standard test methods for firebrand exposure. Fire Safety Journal 91, 784-790.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2019) Understanding structure ignition vulnerabilities using mock-up sections of attached wood fencing assemblies. Fire and Materials 43, 675-684.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2020a) Experimental study on vulnerabilities of Japanese-style tile roof assemblies to firebrand exposures. Fire Technology 56, 2315-2330.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2020b) Role of accumulation for ignition of fuel beds by firebrands. Applications in Energy and Combustion Science 1–4, 100002.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2021a) Ignition vulnerabilities of combustibles around houses to firebrand showers: further comparison of experiments. Sustainability 13, 2136.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2021b) Investigating coupled effect of radiative heat flux and firebrand showers on ignition of fuel beds. Fire Technology 57, 683-697.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2021c) Investigating the effect of structure to structure separation distance on firebrand accumulation. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 6, 628510.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2021d) Toward understanding ignition vulnerabilities to firebrand showers using reduced-scale experiments. Fire and Materials 46, 809-817.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL (2023) Experimental and theoretical approaches to elucidate fuel bed ignition exposed to firebrand showers and radiant heat. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 202, 123740.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Manzello SL, Kagiya K, Suzuki J, Hayashi Y (2014) Ignition of mulch beds exposed to continuous wind-driven firebrand showers. Fire Technology 51, 905-922.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Johnsson E, Maranghides A, Manzello SL (2016) Ignition of wood fencing assemblies exposed to continuous wind-driven firebrand showers. Fire Technology 52, 1051-1067.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Suzuki S, Nii D, Manzello SL (2017) The performance of wood and tile roofing assemblies exposed to continuous firebrand assault. Fire and Materials 41, 84-96.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tao Z, Bathras B, Kwon B, Biallas B, Gollner MJ, Yang R (2021) Effect of firebrand size and geometry on heating from a smoldering pile under wind. Fire Safety Journal 120, 103031.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tarakanova VA, Kasymov DP, Galtseva OV, Chicherina NV (2020) Experimental characterization of firebrand ignition of some wood building materials. Bulletin of the Karaganda University ‘Physics Series’ 100, 14-21.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tarifa CS, Del Notario P, Moreno FG (1965) On the flight paths and lifetimes of burning particles of wood. Symposium (International) on Combustion 10, 1021-1037.
| Google Scholar |

Thomas D, Butry D, Gilbert S, Webb D, Fung J (2017) The costs and losses of wildfires. NIST Special Publication 1215, 1-72.
| Google Scholar |

Thomas JC, Mueller EV, Hadden RM (2018) Chapter 4 - Fire at the Wildland Urban Interface. In ‘Estimating net heat flux from surrogate firebrand accumulations using an inverse heat transfer approach’. (Ed. DX Viegas) Advances in Forest Fire Research. pp. 769–779. (University of Coimbra: Portugal)

Thomas JC, Mueller EV, Gallagher MR, Clark KL, Skowronski N, Simeoni A, Hadden RM (2021) Coupled assessment of fire behavior and firebrand dynamics. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 7, 650580.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tiernan F, O’Mallon E (2020) Australia’s 2019–20 bushfire season. The Canberra Times, 10 January 2020.

Ulpiani G, Ranzi G, Santamouris M (2020) Experimental evidence of the multiple microclimatic impacts of bushfires in affected urban areas: the case of Sydney during the 2019/2020 Australian season. Environmental Research Communications 2, 065005.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Urban JL, Zak CD, Fernandez-Pello C (2015) Cellulose spot fire ignition by hot metal particles. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 35, 2707-2714.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Urban JL, Zak CD, Song J, Fernandez-Pello C (2017) Smoldering spot ignition of natural fuels by a hot metal particle. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 36, 3211-3218.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Urban JL, Zak CD, Fernandez-Pello C (2018) Spot fire ignition of natural fuels by hot aluminum particles. Fire Technology 54, 797-808.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Urban JL, Song J, Santamaria S, Fernandez-Pello C (2019a) Ignition of a spot smolder in a moist fuel bed by a firebrand. Fire Safety Journal 108, 102833.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Urban JL, Vicariotto M, Dunn-Rankin D, Fernandez-Pello AC (2019b) Temperature measurement of glowing embers with color pyrometry. Fire Technology 55, 1013-1026.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Urbas J, Parker WJ, Luebbers GE (2004) Surface temperature measurements on burning materials using an infrared pyrometer: accounting for emissivity and reflection of external radiation. Fire and Materials 28, 33-53.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Valenzuela F, Rivera J, Ebensperger F, Alvarez C, Reszka P, Auat Cheein F, Fuentes A (2023) Ignition of wildland fuels exposed to a time-decreasing incident heat flux. Combustion Science and Technology 195, 3596-3611.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Viegas DX (2018) Wildfires in Portugal. Fire Research 2, 52.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Viegas DX, Almeida M, Raposo J, Oliveira R, Viegas CX (2014) Ignition of Mediterranean fuel beds by several types of firebrands. Fire Technology 50, 61-77.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wadhwani R, Sullivan C, Wickramasinghe A, Kyng M, Khan N, Moinuddin K (2022) A review of firebrand studies on generation and transport. Fire Safety Journal 134, 103674.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wang K, Wang S, Huang X (2025) Hot‐particle ignition of yypical fuels in the Wildland‐Urban Interface and subsequent fire behaviors. Fire and Materials 2025.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wang S, Huang X, Chen H, Liu N (2017) Interaction between flaming and smouldering in hot-particle ignition of forest fuels and effects of moisture and wind. International Journal of Wildland Fire 26, 71-81.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wang S, Thomsen M, Huang X, Fernandez-Pello C (2024) Spot ignition of a wildland fire and its transition to propagation. International Journal of Wildland Fire 33, WF23207.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Warey A (2018) Influence of thermal contact on heat transfer from glowing firebrands. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 12, 301-311.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wessies SS, Ezekoye OA (2022a) Cooling of heated solid cylinder supported on bedded and embedded substrates by impinging air jet. Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications 14, 011009.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wessies SS, Ezekoye OA (2022b) A framework for determining the ignition signatures in a fuel bed due to firebrand deposition. Fire Technology 58, 3439-3461.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wessies SS, Yang JC (2023) Convective heat transfer correlation for a single surrogate firebrand and a simplified firebrand pile on a flat plate using naphthalene sublimation in heated air flow. Fire Safety Journal 140, 103858.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Wessies SS, Chang MK, Marr KC, Ezekoye OA (2019) Experimental and analytical characterization of firebrand ignition of home insulation materials. Fire Technology 55, 1027-1056.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wickramasinghe A, Khan N, Filkov AI, Moinuddin KAM (2023a) Physics-based modelling for mapping firebrand flux and heat load on structures in the wildland–urban interface. International Journal of Wildland Fire 32, 1576-1599.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wickramasinghe A, Khan N, Filkov A, Moinuddin K (2023b) Quantifying firebrand and radiative heat flux risk on structures in mallee/mulga-dominated wildland–urban interface: a physics-based approach. Fire 6, 466,.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wong S, Hodges JL, Lattimer BY (2022) Impact of ash layer retention on heat transfer in piles of vegetation and structure firebrands. Fire Safety Journal 134, 103694.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Yan W, Liu N, Zhu H, Chen H, Xie X, Gao W, Du Z (2024) Firebrand burning under wind: an experimental study. International Journal of Wildland Fire 33, WF23151.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Yang G, Ning J, Shu L, Zhang J, Yu H, Di X (2022) Spotting ignition of larch (Larix gmelinii) fuel bed by different firebrands. Journal of Forestry Research 33, 171-181.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Yang J, Peng X, Urban J, Huang W, Wang H, Wang S, Hu Y (2024) Computational study on the glowing combustion of a wooden ember landing on a non-reacting substrate. Journal of Fire Sciences 43, 33-57.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Yang JC, Manzello SL (2015) A dimensional analysis on firebrand penetration through a mesh screen. Fuel 160, 114-116.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Yin P, Liu N, Chen H, Lozano JS, Shan Y (2014) New correlation between ignition time and moisture content for pine needles attacked by firebrands. Fire Technology 50, 79-91.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zak CD, Murphy DC, Fernandez-Pello AC (2013) ‘Understanding ignition of natural fuels by heated particles.’ (Safety and Security Engineering V)

Zak CD, Urban JL, Fernandez-Pello C (2014) Characterizing the flaming ignition of cellulose fuel beds by hot steel spheres. Combustion Science and Technology 186, 1618-1631.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zhou A, Quarles S, Weise D (2019) Final report: fire ember production from wildland and structural fuels. JFSP Project ID, 15-1. No. 15-1-04-4. (North Carolina State University: Raleigh, NC, USA)

Zhu L, Urban JL (2023) Cooperative spot ignition by idealized firebrands: impact of thermal interaction in the fuel. Fire Safety Journal 135, 103701.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zhu L, Urban JL (2024) Analyzing the ignition capabilities of glowing firebrand accumulations. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 40, 105746.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |