Building relationships between First Nations Peoples and Western scientists to increase capacity to understand, respond and adapt to climate change

2.1 Indigenous governance and leadership

The NFPGCC was supported through the Earth Systems and Climate Change (ESCC) Hub of the Australian Government’s National Environmental Science Program (NESP). The Hub first approached the Yorta Yorta Nation Aboriginal Corporation (YYNAC) in 2015–2016 to host a national conversation, building on the earlier national First Peoples’ dialogues with scientists about climate change convened in 2012 through the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (NCCARF) (Griggs et al. 2013) (Fig. 1). YYNAC agreed the dialogue was consistent with the need for ongoing encounters to build trust and understanding between First Peoples and scientists and engaged in relationship building to co-host the 2018 Dialogue (see above; Griggs et al. 2013).

During the 2018 Dialogue, a cultural shift occurred, with First Nation Peoples stepping into the leading role with their own Statement (Morgan et al. 2019), through one of the first Indigenous-led sessions on climate change in Australia. Connections and two-way understanding grew (Fig. 1). Following the Dialogue, conversations between YYNAC and the ESCC Hub established a benchmark for an Indigenous-led Gathering, developed through co-design, to underpin future engagement between First Peoples and scientists around climate. Synthesis of the ‘Statement’ as a common view among First Peoples at the Gathering was viewed as very useful for future ‘government-to-government’ presentations and negotiations between the First Peoples and colonial governments now co-existing in Australia. These outcomes were highlighted through presentations to Australian government agencies in Canberra during 2019 (Fig. 1).

An Interim Steering Committee for the Indigenous-led Gathering emerged from First Peoples coming together, with support of the ESCC Hub, to present at the Indigenous Symposium on Climate Change at the Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society (AMOS) Conference held in Darwin from 11 to 15 June 2019, and subsequently at the World Heritage Forum. The group of Traditional Owners presenting at the AMOS Conference agreed to join an Interim Committee and work with the ESCC Hub team to further develop First Peoples’ participation. The key to ensuring cultural safety for the Traditional Owners engaged in the Steering Committee was to recognise their role as one of participation on behalf of their First People – not representation of their First People. This difference is critical.

Following the AMOS Conference, the ESCC Hub sent the first invitation for additional participants to the YYNAC who provided ongoing cultural leadership building on the lessons from the 2012 and the 2018 national Dialogues (Fig. 1) The ESCC Hub invited other Traditional Owner groups and nations or organisations from diverse parts of Australia to join through letters to the Traditional Owners’ governing body (usually an organisation created under diverse nation-state laws). These letters requested identification of a participant who was a valued member in the climate change space and provision of a written endorsement for their participation, noting their participation would contribute greatly to the co-design partnership with the ESCC Hub (nationally). Peak bodies with collections of Traditional Owner groups and nations were not invited. A mandate was achieved for the individual Traditional Owners’ groups for all members to form the final Steering Committee. This culturally attuned and culturally sensitive process achieved great results in building trust, strengthening networks and building capabilities. The Steering Committee held 14 meetings and released a communique after each, except the last two, which were wrap-up meetings.

2.2 Follow cultural protocols in co-design

Under guidance of the Steering Committee, the ESCC Hub began learning the right way to engage, with Western science recognised as just one, not the only, approach. A further Indigenous Symposium held during the following AMOS conference (Fremantle in 2020, Fig. 1) developed a set of co-design principles for climate scientists in working with First Peoples (Pearce et al. 2020). The Steering Committee adapted these principles, along with some material from a CSIRO project investigating co-development principles, to arrive at their own Co-design Principles and a Code of Conduct for scientists (appendix B in Morgan-Bulled et al. 2021b).

First Peoples’ leadership in climate change began to attract attention nationally, and in 2020, two Yorta Yorta people were invited to join an Indigenous co-author team for the 5-yearly national SOE report – the first time this report has ever included Indigenous voices (Trewin et al. 2021; Fig. 1).

The Steering Committee faced challenging circumstances from COVID-19 during 2020. Hosting the National Gathering on Country, in line with cultural protocols that recognise Country as a participant in dialogues (Hughes and Barlo 2020) proved impossible. Steering Committee members were asked to present an expression of interest to co-host the Gathering, and Cairns, nominated by the Djungan Traditional Owners, was chosen as the best place to host the Gathering based on criteria including the ease of access from other parts of Australia, the Welcome from local Traditional Owners and the ability to hold a field day on Country. A Host Community Working Group, chaired by the Djungan member of the Steering Committee, was established with participants from the Gimuy Walubara Yidinji and Yirrganydji First Peoples for the Cairns region, and members of the Steering Committee and Organising Committee. This group held seven meetings and developed the cultural program for the Gathering.

A vital step in the cultural program was a message stick hand-over from the Yorta Yorta People, who hosted the 2018 National Dialogue, to the Gimuy Walubara Yidinji and Yirrganydji Peoples, who hosted the 2021 Gathering. Two message sticks were handed over, both made from red gum and both representing Yorta Yorta totems – the long-neck turtle and the emu. Gimuy Walubara Yidinji and Yirrganydji responded with stories about their own totems.

Climate change impacts on a lot of our totemic species, we need to protect them. They are resilient, blackfellas on Country are resilient, they tried to get rid of us and the emu, but we still here. Jaba, your foot, stands on Country, that spirit that belongs to us, still stands on Country … We are the custodians, and the protectors of those species. We are given that from our old people. [Gudjugudju, Gimuy Walubara Yidinji Traditional Owner]

2.3 Foster respectful partnerships to weave knowledge

The Steering Committee co-developed consent processes to foster respectful partnerships and meet the required international Indigenous ethical standards for the Gathering. The Code of Conduct for scientists underpinned efforts to ensure that the journey forward was based on the learnings from past mistakes. Western institutions and people can listen to the voice of Australia’s First Nations people through a dialogue of mutuality.

The Gathering included a First Peoples-led session to discuss ethics. Six members of the Steering Committee explained that the first and foremost goal of the consent process was to protect Indigenous cultural and intellectual property (ICIP) and make the Gathering a culturally safe space in which to share and learn. The Code of Conduct for scientists is to make sure that it was a respectful process, conducted on an equal footing. Discussions among participants followed, highlighting the key challenge of sticking to the process, not getting diverted by different agendas and ensuring that they continued to advocate for climate change action and mitigation. Mutual respect is critical:

We manage through one law, and that is respect. [Djungan Paul Neal, Djungan Traditional Owner]

The processes for weaving knowledge emphasised that the scientific and Indigenous knowledge systems sit alongside each other as parallel systems that together can form a richer picture (Fig. 2). The Gathering aimed to establish a safe place where Traditional Owners and partners could come together, supported by cultural governance and relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

Fig. 2.

Parallel knowledge systems can be woven together through respectful partnerships underpinned by cultural governance, using five key tasks (L Ford et al. 2020).

Weaving knowledge started with the first step of strengthen, prepare: First People members of the Steering Committee agreed to lead one of the four extreme event-related climate change themes for the Gathering – marine heatwaves; bushfires and heatwaves on land; extreme water events (floods, droughts); sea level rise and cyclones. Scientists with relevant expertise in these areas were selected. In the second step, communicate, the First Peoples and scientists came together (virtually or face-to-face) before the Gathering to develop and subsequently present their knowledges about that theme. In all cases, the scientific and First Peoples’ knowledges were presented separately. The discuss step occurred over three sessions: first, some discussions followed the presentations; second, discussions on Country through field trips with the local Traditional Owners, designed to encourage Gathering participants to engage in discussion around these themes; and finally, yarning circles back at the conference venue aimed at producing tangible information that could be taken back and discussed with the Traditional Owner communities. These yarning circles are a discussion space for open and respectful dialogue, where mutual respect aims to provide a culturally safe space to share knowledge alongside the building of trusted relationships. The bring-together step began in the yarning circles, with formulation of some novel two-way products being co-produced by First Nations peoples with Western scientists, and vice versa, and has continued through collaborative writing of a report (Morgan-Bulled et al. 2021b) and the present paper. The apply step occurred after the Gathering, for example through the inclusion of case studies from the Gathering as part of the recent Australian SOE Report (Janke et al. 2021; Trewin et al. 2021).

2.4 Strengthen Indigenous networks

The selection process for participants in the Gathering utilised a snowball sampling method that drew on existing Indigenous networks and sought to strengthen and extend these networks. The invitation was distributed by email to participants of the 2018 Indigenous Dialogue on Climate Change and through the networks of the Steering Committee. Follow-up phone calls sought to encourage nominations. Although the Steering Committee adopted a set of criteria for selection, all nominees were accepted. Wide participation from First Peoples across Australia was achieved (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Locations of attendee First Peoples’ groups and organisations.

2.5 Methods of data collection and analysis

Documentary data collected included the public communiques of the Steering Committee, internal documents, minutes from numerous meetings and the Gathering report (Morgan-Bulled et al. 2021b). These data are publicly available. The Steering Committee adopted a plan for recording the Gathering, which used a team of six non-Indigenous co-authors. Oral material was recorded through direct input to computers, with two recorders for each session to enable periodic stops for health and safety. Photos were taken of each section. Participants recorded their location and First Peoples group by hand on a paper outline map. Written evaluation forms, seeking both Likert-scale (Likert 1932) quantitative and written responses to questions that focused on the goals of the Gathering were completed by participants on the last day.

The first round of analysis involved thematic clustering, a method for examining qualitative data to identify common patterns that are relevant to the research investigation (Braun and Clarke 2006), descriptive statistics of the quantitative evaluation data and spatial analysis to locate First Peoples groups for the mapping data. These analyses were undertaken by eight of the co-authors, including one Indigenous co-author. The Steering Committee reviewed early drafts of the Draft Report drawn from this analysis to honour their unique First Peoples worldviews and ensure validity through critically reflexive review (Cameron et al. 2021).

The research was conducted in accordance with Ethics Clearance 086/17. The Gathering Report includes an ICIP Notice with information that the First Peoples as Indigenous knowledge holders assert ownership (which may be collective ownership), authority and control over their ICIP.

All co-authors of the Gathering report were invited to join the team to write this article, resulting in a diverse group of Traditional Owners, social, inter-disciplinary and biophysical scientists in three groups – coordinating lead authors, lead authors and contributing authors. A second round of data analysis, using thematic clustering, was applied to the Gathering report for the present paper. The final draft paper was circulated to all the participants for checking. The co-authorship order follows cultural protocols that placed the Indigenous authors as leaders in each of the three groups.

2.6 Ethics

The research was conducted in accordance with Ethics Clearance 086/17 received from the CSIRO Social and Interdisciplinary Science Human Research Ethics Committee.

2.7 Participant consent

Research participants gave their consent to participate in the National First Peoples Gathering on Climate Change and for the publication of the research findings.

3.1 Impacts of the gathering on the connections among First Peoples and scientists

Three different types of connections were identified as triggering different benefits and risks through the Gathering: connections among First Peoples; connections among First Peoples and scientists; and connections among scientists.

3.2 Impacts of the Gathering on the credibility of both knowledge systems around climate change response

Weaving across Indigenous and scientific knowledge systems both built and encountered barriers to the credibility of Indigenous and scientific knowledge systems. Credibility was enhanced through mutual reinforcement of findings and making visible ways in which the knowledge systems are complementary. Common applications using both knowledge systems were identified.

Substantial mutual reinforcement of findings occurred in relation to sea-level change and marine heatwaves. In considering sea-level change, First Peoples’ understanding of past changes from oral history was combined with Western scientific understanding. Sea-level has varied significantly over past millennia in response to regular variations in the Earth’s orbit around the sun, which have caused ice ages and interglacial cycles in Earth’s past climate on approximate 100,000-year cycles (Masson-Delmotte 2013; Grant et al. 2014). Paleo sea level records are derived from analysing the ratio of oxygen isotopes (¹⁶O and ¹⁸O) in materials such as marine sediments or air bubbles trapped in ice cores (Yokoyama and Purcell 2021). Since the last Interglacial maximum, c. 130,000 years ago, sea levels dropped to a minimum at the peak of the last Ice Age c. 20,000 years ago when ~120 m of water in the oceans was frozen in large ice sheets covering land areas across the globe (Fig. 4). The oral history of First Nations people records aspects of this sea level history, including the flooding of the land bridge between mainland Australia and Lutruwita (Tasmania) and the formation of the Torres Strait Islands after the last Ice Age ended. The First Peoples timeline was presented using a rope across the stage with people as markers of key events (Morgan-Bulled et al. 2021b, pp. 16–17), giving a visually strong presentation of key data. Combining the history of sea level from both knowledge systems in a common timeline helps display the mutual reinforcement of the findings across the knowledge systems (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Sea level variations over the past 130,000 years based on Grant et al. (2014), and timeline of dated Indigenous artefacts and lived experience of past sea level change captured in oral history (BP, before present).

Marine heatwaves have been identified through scientific research to cause loss of seagrass, kelp forests and coral reefs, and may have played a role in affecting mangroves (Smale et al. 2019; Holbrook et al. 2021). Critically, climate change has exacerbated the frequency, intensity and duration of marine heatwaves (Oliver et al. 2018), creating a series of cascading environmental impacts affecting resident plant and animal species and, in turn, Traditional Owners, through their deep connection to Sea Country. This is expected to only get worse through this century (Oliver et al. 2019; Holbrook et al. 2020).

Traditional Owners provided evidence that culturally important animals like dugong, turtles, fish, sea snakes, crabs, conch shells and prawns have been declining owing to increases in marine heatwaves associated with climate change. In Tasmania, loss of giant kelp has led to a decline in maireener (rainbow kelp shells), diminishing access to resources for making kelp baskets and shell necklaces and thereby to loss of cultural connections. In the Great Barrier Reef region, marine heatwaves are negatively affecting crocodile and turtle nesting success, as well as causing corals to bleach. Traditional Owners from the savanna and freshwater regions provided information about how changes on their Country flow through the rivers to affect marine ecosystems. However, the Torres Strait Islands can act as centres of resilience to marine heatwaves and strongholds for species such as green turtle owing to the cool upwelling of water around the Strait.

Seagrass is culturally significant for Malgana People (Gutharagudu or Shark Bay region, Western Australia) because it is relied on by dugongs and turtles, which are important for food and culture. The rangers continue to monitor seagrass in Shark Bay and work with scientists on the data, which are important to keep in the area.

We are concerned about marine heatwaves because they’re killing our seagrass and making our waters unhealthy. Seeing changes over time is concerning … it’s disheartening and scary for me, but if we put our heads together, we can get a positive outlook. [Nykita McNeair, Malgana Traditional Owner]

First Peoples and scientists worked together to discuss and weave their knowledge about marine heatwaves in three geographically based groups: Western Australia–Northern Territory, Tasmania and Torres Strait–Great Barrier Reef. Both First Peoples and scientists present found that stories and conversations collectively flowed when using a ‘cascading consequences’ diagram (Fig. 5) to recall the consequences of intense and detrimental warm ocean (marine heatwave) events on Sea Country. This approach proved unifying in bringing Traditional and Western Knowledge systems together, and the diagram helped display the mutual reinforcement of the findings across the knowledge systems (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Cascading consequences diagram used to facilitate discussion on the effects of marine heatwaves for regions in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.

The fine-scale understanding and connection of First Peoples with their Country was particularly evident in the bushfires and heatwaves on land thematic discussion. First Peoples from the Kimberley region displayed a painting (the Ngurrara Canvas), explaining:

Looking at the painting – it’s a map of our Traditional Country … to capture the stories and songlines of migration of animals across Traditional Country and when our mob moved off the desert because of climate change. [Peter Murray, Chair of the 10 Deserts Project]

Ngurarra rangers described how they worked together with scientists to develop a common application, using the knowledge of tracks from the Ngurarra Canvas to place weather stations for recording rising temperatures and monitoring water movement. The yarning circles identified how First Nations’ knowledge and knowledge systems occur through connection to Country, Dreamtime stories, yarning across generations, storylines and song lines, and cave paintings and art. Western science is less directly engaged with Country, with a focus on the ‘scientific method’ of collecting data, analysing data and writing a paper or report. The fine-scale technological capability of scientists to project future temperatures was evident in the bushfires and heatwaves on land events, with projections demonstrating large increases in high-temperature days and the number of heatwaves. The workshop also revealed that there were barriers to enhancing credibility across knowledge systems. A lack of trust by First Peoples in Western systems, and a clear sense that Western society and people have been the perpetrators of human-caused climate change was evident among some participants. By contrast, the thematic discussions highlighted the local-scale climate change response efforts of First Nations People, many of whom are involving scientists within their Countries. For example, a seagrass restoration project in Gutharagudu (Shark Bay) is under way through a collaboration between Malgana rangers and the University of Western Australia that aims to better understand the genetics of the seagrasses to base restoration on sea grasses that can survive in a warmer climate. The cultural knowledge of Traditional Owners and Elders guides the location and activities to undertake restoration.

3.3 Impacts of the Gathering on producing practical outcomes for community

The Gathering provided many examples of First Peoples and scientists working together at the local scale, in the traditional territories of the First Peoples, to deliver practical outcomes through better understanding and responding to climate change in the community. The examples of the Ngurarra and Malgana rangers are noted above. Yorta Yorta described their cultural protocol for working with scientists on freshwater turtles in the Barmah Forest. The Butchulla Aboriginal Corporation (BAC) described how BAC provided on-ground assistance during the 2020 wildfires at K’gari (Fraser Island), including advice on using freshwater lakes, knowledge to identify and protect cultural assets, and resources to help firefighting, including a representative on the incident management team and community rangers to carry out fire mitigation work and front-line firefighting.

Nevertheless, BAC found it difficult to get a seat at the decision-making table and make it known that the fire was affecting rights to Country. There were also cultural differences in firefighting priorities – BAC wanted the fire to be put out straight away whereas the parks service was focused on threats to assets. This sense of frustration was shared by others involved in bringing cultural burning practices back at a local scale. Government agencies’ planned burns are becoming fewer owing to extreme conditions making fires dangerous. However, the traditional indicator species suggest this is not the right approach. Participants identified that incorporating the traditional calendar for burning according to indicator species needs to gain more traction – Country was getting sick because even where cultural burning was set up, it was not truly culturally appropriate owing to a lack of cultural governance. Others reported that where there was a genuine thirst for more scientific information, there was often a lack of locally relevant data on indicators such as rainfall.

Traditional Owners from the Torres Strait expressed frustration that their urgent needs for practical solutions to protect their islands from sea-level rise were not receiving effective response. Defence walls are currently being used to prevent islands being lost to the sea but are not a long-term solution.

Myself and other Torres Strait Islanders who attended have left feeling discouraged because yet again our voices aren’t heard and we are underrepresented. [Gathering participant, evaluation comment]

Acknowledgement was made to the Torres Strait Island delegate on how the conference could support their region.

A key solution to these barriers faced in producing practical outcomes for community was the idea of learning as the most practical outcome of all. Many different types of learning occurred at the Gathering and in the preparatory work for the Gathering (Table 2). Two-way learning, across the Indigenous and Western scientific knowledge systems, was identified as very helpful. Participants reported an intention to report back what they had learnt:

A lot of information will be shared with community, especially the land-owning groups of my community. [Gathering participant, evaluation comment]

Participants requested a copy of the information from the Gathering in printed format with a summary and visual material, which was provided in the form of a full co-authored report and summary version available online (Morgan-Bulled et al. 2021a, 2021b).

Learning from Elders is a common priority among First Nations People:

We grew up learning from our Elders … about different resources and how we can use those to manage Country. [Bianca McNeair, Malgana Traditional Owner]

Learning through peer-to-peer exchanges among First Nations groups and international Indigenous groups was highlighted as very valuable:

Making connections with other mobs, learning we all have our own concerns, but we’re all interconnected and seeing the value/opportunity in this. [Gathering participant, evaluation comment]

Reponses to the evaluation of the Gathering identified how critical it is for First Peoples to be on Country and learn with Country:

The chance to be on Country transcends all levels in allowing for frank, effective communication. [Gathering participant, evaluation comment]

Participants also identified that the Gathering focused primarily on learning through hearing and seeing, and that more opportunities for learning through feel, touch and taste senses would be beneficial.

Some Traditional Owners found learning from Western science and the scientists to be extremely helpful, giving examples of learning about how to plant a tree in the ocean. Scientists identified a wide array of learning from the Gathering – about cultural protocols, about effective ways to communicate and engage, and about the concerns and priorities of First Nations people. Building on local co-learning projects was identified as a key way forward – using new tools such as social media, audio-visual products, performances and workshops to help share knowledge between nations, and between Traditional Owners and Western science. The First Peoples Statement from the Gathering (Box 1) called on governments to support an annual First Nations-led dialogue on climate change – continuing to foster learning.