Wildlife conservation problems in Ethiopia and its solution: a focus on ecotourism
Eskinder Belay Tefera
A *
A
Abstract
Ethiopia is home to wildlife, high levels of endemism, and spectacular wildlife species. However, the country is ineffective in protecting its wildlife. Nearly all protected areas in the country face threats from human activities. Many local communities rely directly on these protected areas for livelihood, which imposes pressures and stress on species and their habitats. The main objective of this perspective is to organize scientific evidence on wildlife conservation problems in Ethiopia by focusing on ecotourism as a solution. This perspective found that there are multiple wildlife conservation issues in Ethiopia. Rapid increment in human population around protected areas and dependence on natural resources associated with rural poverty are affecting wildlife populations in all parts of the country. Resource use and human–wildlife conflict, hunting, pollution, agricultural expansion, livestock encroachments, habitat loss, fragmentation, and deforestation, were recognized as major problems in the country. In addition to this, lack of community involvement, unauthorized settlements, wildlife policy gaps, and insufficient skilled manpower are also other challenges for sustainable wildlife conservation in Ethiopia. Supporting local community livelihoods, implementing regulations, promoting environmental awareness, and improving environmental management planning are the possible measures for sustainable wildlife conservation in the country. This perspective also highlighted the role of ecotourism because it is a way to mitigate wildlife conservation problems in the country. Raising awareness for local communities, compensating for negative impacts, implementing zoning measures for protected areas, promoting sustainable ecotourism, and providing financial support for wildlife hotspot areas are needed in the country.
Keywords: biodiversity loss, ecotourism, Ethiopia, habitat degradation, human–wildlife conflict, protected areas, wildlife conservation problems.
Introduction
The loss of wildlife is a critical global issue. One of the world’s biggest illicit industries is the illegal wildlife trade (Trombulak and Frissell 2000). Habitat loss and degradation is also recognized as the biggest threat to wildlife species worldwide (Tweheyo et al. 2012). In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, the pouring of about 800 metric tons of plastic into the ocean each year and its impact on previously pristine corners of the earth constitute one of the major threats to wildlife worldwide (Munns 2006).
African countries, in particular Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia, have experienced the aforementioned issues (Tefera 2011; Macha and Ngowi 2017; Mwaura 2020). Ethiopia, being one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich countries in the world, is considered a major hub of diversity and endemism for several species in the Horn of Africa (Tadesse and Kotler 2016). The country encompasses various habitats, ranging from Afroalpine at the highest elevations to desert and semi-desert ecosystems at the lowest elevations; those are characterized by differences in rainfall, humidity, and temperature (IBC 2009). Ethiopia offers enormous potential for wildlife, high levels of endemism, and stunning scenery that could serve as the foundation for a thriving tourism business (Abrehe et al. 2020).
However, Ethiopia has been unsuccessful in protecting its wildlife. The country previously implemented a protective strategy that excluded local populations from participating in wildlife conservation and protected area management (Young 2012). This lack of involvement and benefit sharing has led to negative perceptions among the local populations regarding wildlife conservation and protected areas, leaving their sense of ownership fragile (Berihun et al. 2016). As a result, nearly all protected areas in Ethiopia face threats from human activities. Many local communities depend directly on these protected areas for their livelihood, and their activities impose pressure and stress on species and their habitats (Biset et al. 2019). Issues such as poverty, insufficient political well, lack of alternative sources of income, illegal habitation, agricultural development, overgrazing, illegal hunting, and deforestation, conflicts between people and wildlife, and incompatible land investments contribute to the challenges faced by wildlife in the country (Young 2012; Horncastle et al. 2019).
To address these issues, it is crucial to find solutions that involve all parties and promote sustainable ecotourism development (Petros et al. 2016). Ethiopia relies heavily on its natural ecosystems for their indirect benefits to agriculture, energy, water catchment, and other national economic sectors, particularly wildlife (Hulme and Murphree 2001). Properly managed ecotourism can provide economic opportunities, while conserving natural resources (Kasso and Bekele 2014). Consumptive activities such as hunting and wildlife trade could significantly boost the foreign exchange earnings of the economy (Segan et al. 2016). However, the current strategies of protected areas in Ethiopia are not sufficient to mitigate threats to species and habitats (Gashaw 2015). Therefore, the main goal of this paper is to organize scientific-based evidence on the wildlife conservation problem in Ethiopia and propose remedies with a focus on ecotourism as a sustainable solution.
Wildlife conservation problems in Ethiopia
Wildlife policy and lack of adequate skilled manpower
Wildlife conservation in Ethiopia has long been a challenge (Wolff 1961; Groombridge 1992; Tedla 1995). Currently, the country faces several challenges that hinder efforts to protect and preserve the country’s rich biodiversity (Leykun 2003). The country’s wildlife policy lacks coherence and effective implementation mechanisms, with unclear guidelines, insufficient enforcement, and limited stakeholder involvement hindering its ability to address conservation challenges effectively (Debella 2019). The inadequate wildlife policy in Ethiopia fails to address emerging threats such as habitat loss, poaching, and wildlife trafficking. Moreover, the transfer of responsibility of some protected area to regional governments has added complexity to the situation (Mekonen et al. 2017; Wale et al. 2017).
Ethiopia needs more skilled professionals to align with the new management structure (Abie and Bekele 2016). According to Idowu et al. (2011), Ethiopia’s conservation efforts suffer from a lack of skilled manpower in critical areas such as wildlife management research, and law enforcement. Although some skilled individuals exist, bureaucratic obstacles pose significant barriers to wildlife policy development, capacity building, management, conservation planning, and community engagement (Debella 2019).
Resource use and human–wildlife conflict
The expansion of agricultural activities that shifted natural habitat into land use for farming and grazing has led to habitat destruction and encroachment on wildlife areas (Yihune et al. 2008). This has resulted in increased human–wildlife conflict as animals compete for resources with local communities (Randall et al. 2006; Yihune et al. 2009). Balancing the needs of the rural population with the preservation of biodiversity is a significant challenge in the County (Inskip and Zimmernna 2009; Belay et al. 2013). Ethiopia has low agricultural productivity and production (Abebe and Bekele 2018). Typically, this progress comes at the expense of the destruction of flora and fauna as well as their habitats (Amare 2015). As a consequence of increasing settlement and agricultural productivity, the country is at a crossroads between the decline and displacement of biodiversity resources and the continued poverty of the rural population. The survival of the human populations and wildlife species in the country is also being threatened by this growing tension between the preservation of biological resources and the human need for land use (Atickem et al. 2010; Eniang et al. 2011).
Absences of community involvement
The involvement of local communities in conservation efforts is crucial for sustainable wildlife management. However, in Ethiopia, community participation has often been neglected. Communities are not adequately engaged in decision-making processes, benefit-sharing, or management of wildlife resources (Kifle 2024). This lack of involvement can lead to conflicts between communities and wildlife authorities (Zelalem 2007; Yihune et al. 2009). The significance of involving the local communities in conservation area projects and development has generally been disregarded (Asmamaw and Verma 2013). The ecological and monetary gains that follow from the exploitation of wildlife resources are not geared towards integrated development, and local communities are not involved in the benefit distribution and management of wildlife resources (Bishaw 2001). In its place, people have frequently been made to relocate, while being utterly denied any kind of traditional claim to their land (Belay et al. 2014). Hence, this has made the issue worse and the disagreements between the community and the wildlife staff have led to violence.
Inadequacy of funds allocated for conservation
Many protected areas in Ethiopia face financial challenges because of limited funding (Berhanu and Teshome 2018). The absence of clear regulation for administrative and financial procedures hinders the sustainable management and development of wildlife resources in the country (Berta Aneseyee 2016). Insufficient funds and poor infrastructure further impede effective conservation efforts overall (Ashenafi and Leader-Williams 2005). The government regionalization strategy aims to collaborate with the local administration to strategize for the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources within specific areas. However, the managerial framework lacks essential components for successful implementation (Bulte et al. 2003; HUSA 2012). Although many protected areas were recognized in the county, the wildlife conservation governance system does not include all stakeholders and is simply framed from the federal government to protected areas. This creates barriers to promoting co-management with local communities and creates a financial leakage in wildlife areas (Magige 2012).
Limited international community involvement
Organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and other various NGOs provide financial support for wildlife conservation projects in Ethiopia and the Ethiopian government is in the process of creating a trust fund that will be used for wildlife conservation (GEF 2020). However, because of bureaucracy hurdles, lack of transparency and accountability, the funds coming from the international community have not directly contributed to wildlife conservation efforts (Teketay 2001; Debella 2019).
Resource availability for wildlife conservation in the country is also insufficient to address diverse conservation needs across the country. The Ethiopian government needs additional collaborations with international organizations to support wildlife in the country. Therefore, there is still a need for greater international involvement to support wildlife conservation in the country (Demeke and Bekele 2011). Besides, to maintain wildlife species in the country, the Ethiopian wildlife development programs currently require a definite conservation initiative based on federally centered conservation concepts (Hulme and Murphree 2001).
Deforestation and unsustainable use of natural resources
Deforestation and land degradation pose major threats to wildlife habitats in Ethiopia (Tessema 2021). The country has experienced a significant reduction in forest cover over time, primarily owing to unrestricted logging, charcoal production, and fuel-wood gathering (Fig. 1). These activities directly influence the habitats of wildlife, leading to declines in populations and loss of biodiversity (Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority 2014; Temesgen and Warkineh 2018), according to Abebe (2020).
Charcoal production in south-western Ethiopia (Gambella region, Agnuak Zone); photo: E. B. Tefera, 2023.
The major factor that causes habitat destruction in Ethiopia emerged from rural poverties, population growth, land tenure system, improper development policies, economic incentives, and inadequate conservation measures. Habitat loss and fragmentation are the main causes of changes in the distribution and abundance of organisms and are usually considered to negatively affect the abundance and species richness of organisms in a landscape (Lavrenchenko and Bekele 2017).
Deforestation and the consequent land degradation pose a hazard to many wild animals in their natural habitats and have an impact on the way they live in their preferred habitats (Fig. 2). In the past, Ethiopian forest cover was about 40% of the land, but it had decreased to 3% by 2018 (Masanja 2014; Berhanu and Teshome 2018). This is due to human population density and their modes of subsistence in the vicinity of the majority of protected areas throughout time (Masanja 2014). The modes of subsistence pushed the population to unrestricted logging, illegal charcoal production, and fuel-wood gathering, which have been the main factors contributing to deforestation that directly affect the habitat of large mammals (Demeke and Lemma 2017). As a result, these activities diminished the esthetic impressiveness of protected areas, which then had an impact on tourism too (Vial 2010). The negative effects on faunal populations are linked to the extensive development of arable land, the dwindling of woody vegetation, the decline of rangelands, soil erosion and siltation of waterbodies, and loss of soil productivity (Kideghesho 2001).
Wildlife hunting and road kill
Ethiopia is home to several national parks and controlled hunting areas, but institutional and financial capability for managing protected areas is inadequate, and benefit-sharing mechanisms with communities are lacking (HUSA 2012). Even though Ethiopia has internationally unique biodiversity, as a result of a variety of factors, such as hunting, its wildlife populations have been drastically reduced (Demeke and Lemma 2017). Hunting, both legal and illegal, poses a threat to Ethiopia’s wildlife populations (Fig. 3). Conservation efforts in Ethiopia face a major challenge due to wildlife hunting, which poses a threat to biodiversity and the integrity of ecosystems. The demand for bush meat and traditional medicine drives illegal poaching, endangering the country’s wildlife populations (Lilieholm and Romney 2000). Hunting activities contribute to habitat degradation, exacerbating the conservation problem in Ethiopia. Encroachment into protected areas and sensitive habitats not only reduces wildlife populations but also undermines the overall health of ecosystems (Gebre 2020). The unsustainable hunting practices also have socio-economic impacts on local communities, highlighting the need for conservation solutions that balance environmental protection with livelihood considerations (Gebre 2020).
Antelope hunting residues in south-western Ethiopia (Gambella region, Agnuak Zone); photo: E. B. Tefera, 2023.
Roads have negative effects on aquatic as well as terrestrial ecosystems. Roads are responsible for animal mortality, overall environmental modification, and the introduction of exotic species (Gutema et al. 2023). Construction of roads is dangerous to invertebrate animals that are living near the road or beneath the road (Alemayehu and Tsegaye 2017). One of the major effects of roads on animal behavior is a hindrance in animal movement, home-range alteration, loss of reproductive success, and changes in physiological condition. Because of the construction of roads, soil compactness as well as soil water content are changed. Roadside environmental changes result in changes in light, temperature, and sedimentation of heavy metals owing to surface run-off. Hunting and fishing activities are also increased by the construction of roads. Roads may not affect all ecosystems equally, but they generally change the species distribution and species richness (Ashenafi and Leader-Williams 2005).
Livestock encroachments and agricultural expansion
Grazing by free-range livestock has strong negative impacts on wildlife populations, their habitats, and overall ecosystem function and structure. Livestock has been intensively competing with wildlife for different habitat resources, including forage, water sources, and space. Livestock encroachment has been known to be the major driving force for the degradation, fragmentation, and loss of wildlife habitats, including protected areas (Eniang et al. 2011).
According to Demeke and Lemma (2017), livestock grazing and browsing can cause uprooting, trampling, and preying on fruits/seeds that strongly hamper recruitment and regeneration of understorey vegetation, reducing the cover, and foraging opportunities of the wild animals.
Agricultural land expansion is the most dominant driver for habitat loss, which, combined with unsustainable forest management, contributes to the greatest cause of species moving closer (Gashaw 2015). Agricultural expansion and intensification also threaten the benefit that biodiversity provides to crops, for instance, pest control and other environmental services. In addition to the loss of wild biodiversity, the present path of agricultural intensification, by relying on a few selected varieties, is displacing a large number of traditionally cultured varieties of plants (Legese and Bekele 2023).
Pollution
Air pollution decreases the native population of animals and has a very bad effect on wild birds as well as wild mammals. The pollutants from industry cause diseases, mortality, bioaccumulation, and physiological stress. For example, some pollutants such as heavy metals, noise, and environmental xenobiotics change the distribution of wildlife animals (Tadesse and Burhan 2018). Agriculture and urbanization are the major causes of water pollution. Phosphorus, nitrogen, and many other nutrients are added to aquatic ecosystems continuously by agriculture and urban activities (Beltrán 2000).
The major causes of soil pollution are human activities (Addis and Abebaw 2017). Leakage of oil and chemicals also contaminate the soil. The overall soil contents and microorganisms in the soil are negatively affected by high levels of contamination (Kebede 2019). As a result of soil contamination, crop yield is highly reduced and it affects the organism that depends on the plants for their food, nutrition, and habitat (Berihun et al. 2016). Noise pollution causes stress, loss of reproductive success, and physiological disturbance, and limits the long-term survival of wild animals (Alemayehu and Tsegaye 2017).
Climate change
Climate change alters vegetation patterns and water availability leading to habitat degradation. Ethiopia’s highland ecosystems, such as Bale Mountain and Simian Mountain, are experiencing shifts in Afroalpine and montane forests. The threatened species such as the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) and walia ibex (Capra walie) were affected by this climate change (Gottelli et al. 2013). Lowland areas including the Awash and Omo valleys face desertification, reducing grazing land for wildlife such as Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) (Yalden and Largen 1992). Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall disrupt breeding and migration patterns. Some studies have indicated that bird species in wetland are shifting to other land-use types because of changing water levels (EWNHS 2019). Similarly, large mammals in savanna ecosystem face food scarcity as droughts prolong (Fetene et al. 2019). Climate-inducing resource scarcity forces wildlife into farmland, escalating conflict. In Bale Mountains, Ethiopian wolves increasingly prey on livestock because of reduced rodent populations (Marino et al. 2010). Similarly, elephants in Babille Elephant Sanctuary raid crops as water sources dry up (Tessema 2021). In addition, Simien Mountains National Park and Nech Sar National Park face a lack of funding for climate adaptation (Asefa et al. 2020). Weak enforcement of conservation policies exacerbates climate change-related problems in the country (Mengist et al. 2021).
Solutions for wildlife conservation problems in Ethiopia
Community awareness and compensation
Raising local community awareness around wildlife areas and the potential implications of human–wildlife interactions is a crucial step in effective conservation strategies (Holden 2003; Getahun and Yeshanew 2016). Environmental education should encompass ecosystems, risk factors, and managing activities to lessen animal susceptibility (Yosef 2014). Environmental education should also focus on practical management and protection of wildlife (Holden 2003).
Direct and indirect forms of compensation are possible through ecotourism and benefit sharing (Woodroffe et al. 2007). Effective management practices for minimizing wildlife management issues and promoting wildlife conservation are achievable by creating economic opportunities by compensation and sustainable resource utilization (Y. Mohammed, unpubl. data). Engaging the local community in ecotourism initiatives empowers them to become stewards of their natural resources, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility for wildlife conservation (Bramwell and Sharman 2000).
Ecotourism as a solution for wildlife conservation
Ecotourism can directly aid in the preservation of fragile habitats and regions through entrance fees for the maintenance and protection of environmentally sensitive regions. Incentives from tourists and tour companies have been charged for park conservation efforts (Ogutu 2002). The benefits to natural regions can be increased with good environmental management of tourism infrastructure, particularly hotels. Nonetheless, this calls for careful planning for regulated development, on the basis of a study of the local environment’s resources (Fetene et al. 2012). By planning early for tourist growth, costly mistakes can be avoided and the slow degradation of environmental assets important to tourism can be avoided (Sangpikul 2017). Planning helps choose between competing uses or identify solutions to make them compatible (MoCT 2006).
Planning and running ecotourism facilities in a way that minimizes their environmental impact can benefit from the use of cleaner production processes (Salum 2009). Employing green building practices (such as using energy-efficient and non-polluting construction materials, sewage systems, and energy sources) is a crucial strategy for the ecotourism sector to lessen its environmental impact (Child et al. 2012). Also, because the waste treatment and disposal practices of ecotourism sector result in significant, long-term environmental issues, waste minimization such as recycling and pollution control strategies are particularly crucial for enhancing their contribution to wildlife conservation (Mulualem and Tesfahunegny 2016).
Ecotourism plays a crucial role in raising environmental awareness and promoting the interpretation of wildlife and ecosystems. By engaging visitors in educational activities and guided tours, ecotourism fosters a keeper’s understanding of the importance of conservation efforts (Honey 2008).
Because ecotourism puts people closer to the natural environment, it can promote public appreciation of the environment and raise awareness about environmental challenges (Adom 2019). Environmental awareness and promotion will increase people’s appreciation for nature and inspire them to act environmentally friendly. To be sustainable in the long term, ecotourism must adopt the values and behaviors of sustainable consumption (Jahan and Akhter 2018). Building consumer demand for products created with cleaner manufacturing methods and services, such as tourism services, that are offered in a way that minimizes environmental impacts is one aspect of sustainable consumption (Mwamidi et al. 2012). Informing travelers about environmental issues and increasing their knowledge of how their behavior affects the environment are two important roles the tourism sector can play (Nino et al. 2017). Moving tourists and businesses that depend on tourism towards adopting goods and services that are created and delivered in an environmentally friendly way might significantly affect the planet’s ecology (Brett 2018). There is growing evidence that these encounters encourage social media advocacy of parks and conservation messaging, as well as significant support for neighborhood parks in tourist destinations (Calderwood and Maksim 2019). The use of post-visit action resources that link the new knowledge and experiences gained in ecotourism settings to opportunities for conservation action at home, especially reducing consumption, is one way to encourage conservation or ‘pro-environmental’ behaviors among tourists when they return home (Okello 2003).
One significant benefit of ecotourism is its ability to diversify livelihood for local communities living near wildlife habitat (Neth 2008). Because of this, the diversification of the livelihoods of those who live in and around protected areas is a well-known benefit of ecotourism (Beltrán 2000; Van 2015). Ecotourism is the best sustainable development method because it combines conservation and development, just like other paradigms of sustainable usage, integrated conservation development, or community-based natural resource management. Ecotourism is frequently referred to as ‘a promising route for producing advantages for individuals living close to tropical biodiversity without endangering its existence’ by both supporters and opponents of the industry (Tesfaye 2017). The concept is that residents who are dependent on wildlife and ecosystem services for their livelihoods will lessen their reliance on natural resources when they switch to work in ecotourism (Theodros 2004). Ecotourism also encourages sustainable practices that minimize ecological impact and promote long-term conservation goals (Hawkins 2004).
Ecotourism contribution to protected areas and wildlife conservation in Ethiopia
Ecotourism has a significant contribution to wildlife conservation in East Africa. Main countries with large ecotourism potential are Tanzania, Kenya, and Ethiopia (Kissui and Packer 2019; Girma and Mamo 2019). In these countries, ecotourism provides funding for conservation (ranger salaries, anti-poaching efforts), and promotes local community engagements, reducing reliance on wildlife exploitation (Aseres and Sira 2020).
Ecotourism provides a remarkable contribution to some protected areas in Ethiopia, mostly the national parks that have threatened species. Ecotourism supports the conservation of Ethiopian wolves and mountain nyalas in Bale Mountain National park. Revenue from ecotourism funds ranger patrols and community conservation programs in this national park (Williams and Vivero 2001). Simien Mountain National Park is also home to gelada baboon and walia ibex. Simien Mountains National Park also home to the gelada baboon and walia ibex. In this regard, ecotourism reduced further habitat distraction by providing alternative livelihood to the local communities. The revenues generated from ecotourism contribute to anti-poaching initiatives and increase awareness among local communities on conservation issues (Mengist et al. 2021). Ecotourism also contributes to Nech Sar National Park in conserving zebra and bird species (Ayalew and Teshome 2020). In Senkele Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary, ecotourism contributed to reducing hunting pressures on the endangered Swayne’s hartebeest (Tessema 2017). However, poor infrastructure, lack of awareness, and weak policy enforcement have affected the effectiveness of ecotourism in all parts of the country (Admasu 2020).
Conclusions
This perspective found that multiple problems hindered wildlife conservation in Ethiopia. These challenges emanated from resource-use conflicts, insufficient funding, and policy gaps. Habitat loss and fragmentation, deforestation and unsustainable resource harvesting owing to human population increment were the major problems in the conservation efforts. However, the perspective also identifies potential solutions to address these issues and emphasizes the importance of ecotourism as a key strategy for wildlife conservation in the country. The findings of the perspective underscore the need for concerted efforts to support local community livelihoods and increase their involvement in wildlife conservation initiatives. This can be achieved through the implementation of regulations that promote sustainable resource use and mitigate human–wildlife conflicts. Additionally, raising environmental awareness among local communities is crucial to fostering a sense of ownership and encouraging responsible practices toward wildlife and their habitats. Furthermore, effective environmental management planning, including zoning measures for protected areas, is essential to preserve wildlife habitats and mitigate threats such as overgrazing, unauthorized settlements, and deforestation. Strengthening wildlife policies and addressing policy gaps are also imperative to provide a solid framework for conservation efforts. The perspective has also highlighted the significance of ecotourism as a viable solution for wildlife conservation in Ethiopia. Through promoting sustainable ecotourism practices, the country can leverage its rich biodiversity and scenic landscapes to generate economic opportunities, while protecting wildlife and their habitats. This requires the development of well-designed ecotourism programs that prioritize the conservation of natural resources, minimize adverse impacts, and provide fair benefits to local communities. Raising awareness for local communities about the value of wildlife conservation and promoting sustainable ecotourism initiatives that contribute to wildlife conservation and benefit local communities should be encouraged. Effective zoning measures for protected areas are needed to regulate land use and minimize human–wildlife conflicts. Collaboration among stakeholders, including government agencies, NGOs, local communities, and researchers is important in the country.
In general, sound ecotourism development should be promoted in the country to reduce the wildlife burdens that arise from weak wildlife conservation policy, lack of financing, and other anthropogenic threats.
References
Abebe T (2020) Drivers of deforestation in Ethiopia: a spatial analysis. Environmental Management 25(4), 567-583.
| Google Scholar |
Abebe FB, Bekele SE (2018) Challenges to National Park conservation and management in Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Science 10(5), 52.
| Google Scholar |
Abie A, Bekele A (2016) Threats to gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada) around Debre Libanos, northwest Shewa Zone, Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity 2016, 405717.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Abrehe S, Gebrewahid Y, Gebreab G (2020) Conservation challenges and causes of wildlife habitat change in Kafta Sheraro National Park, northwestern Tigray, Ethiopia. Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology 12(3), 38-55.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Addis W, Abebaw A (2017) Determination of heavy metal concentration in soils used for cultivation of Allium sativum L. (garlic) in East Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region Ethiopia. Cogent Chemistry 3(1), 1419422.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Admasu S (2020) Ecotourism as a tool to substantially funding conservation endeavors in Ethiopia. Journal of Tourism & Hospitality 9, 432.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Adom D (2019) The place and voice of local people, culture, and traditions: a catalyst for ecotourism development in rural communities in Ghana. Scientific African 6, e00184.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Alemayehu B, Tsegaye D (2017) Road kill incidents in addis ababa: a case study of human–wildlife conflicts. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 17(1), 405-419.
| Google Scholar |
Amare A (2015) Wildlife resources of ethiopia: opportunities, challenges and future directions: from ecotourism perspective: a review paper. Natural Resources 6(6), 405-422.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Asefa A, Admassu B, Tadesse Y (2020) Climate change impacts on Ethiopia’s protected areas and biodiversity conservation strategies. Environmental Management 65(6), 789-801.
| Google Scholar |
Aseres SA, Sira RK (2020) Ecotourism development in Ethiopia: costs and benefits for protected area conservation. Journal of Ecotourism 20(3), 224-249.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Ashenafi ZT, Leader-Williams N (2005) Indigenous common property resource management in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Human Ecology 33(4), 539-563.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Asmamaw D, Verma A (2013) Ecotourism for environmental conservation and community livelihoods, the case of the Bale Mountain National Park, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Science and Water Resources 2((8), 250-259.
| Google Scholar |
Atickem A, Bekele A, Williams SD (2010) Competition between domestic dogs and Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 48(2), 401-407.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Ayalew Z, Teshome E (2020) The role of community-based ecotourism in wildlife conservation: the case of Nech Sar National Park, Ethiopia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 28(5), 678-695.
| Google Scholar |
Belay S, Amsalu A, Abebe E (2013) Awash National Park, Ethiopia: use policy, ethnic conflict and sustainable resources conservation in the context of decentralization. African Journal of Ecology 51(1), 122-129.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Belay S, Amsalu A, Abebe E (2014) Land use and land cover changes in awash National Park, Ethiopia: impact of decentralization on the use and management of resources. Open Journal of Ecology 04(15), 950-960.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Beltrán J (2000) ‘Indigenous and traditional peoples and protected areas: principles, guidelines, and case studies.’ (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK; and WWF International: Gland, Switzerland) 10.2305/IUCN.CH.2000.PAG.4.en
Berhanu K, Teshome E (2018) Opportunities and challenges for wildlife conservation: the case of Alatish National Park, northwest Ethiopia. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 7(1), 1-13.
| Google Scholar |
Berihun A, Yirga G, Tesfay G (2016) Human–Wildlife Conflict in Kafta–Sheraro National Park, northern Ethiopia. World Journal of Zoology 11(3), 154-159.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Berta Aneseyee A (2016) Vegetation composition and deforestation impact in Gambella National Park, Ethiopia. Journal of Energy and Natural Resources 5(3), 30-36.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Biset A, Mengesha G, Girma Z (2019) Human–wildlife conflict in and around Borena Sayint National Park, northern Ethiopia. Human–Wildlife Interactions 13(1), 111-124.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Bishaw B (2001) Deforestation and land degradation in the ethiopian highlands: a strategy for physical recovery. Northeast African Studies 8(1), 7-25.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Brett MR (2018) Tourism in the Kruger National Park: past development, present determinants and future constraints. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 7(2), 1-28.
| Google Scholar |
Child BA, Musengezi J, Parent GD, Child GFT (2012) The economics and institutional economics of wildlife on private land in Africa. Pastoralism 2(1), 18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Debella HJ (2019) ‘Command and control’: 75 years of quasi wildlife policy analysis of Ethiopia. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy 22(1), 33-54.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Demeke D, Bekele A (2011) Population status and human impact on the endangered Swayne’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus Buselaphus Swaynei) in Nechisar Plains, Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 49(3), 311-319.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Demeke DD, Lemma T (2017) Challenges of human settlement on wildlife in Bale Mountains National Park, southeast Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 9(4), 107-114.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Eniang EA, Ijeomah HM, Okeyoyin G, Uwatt AE (2011) Assessment of human–wildlife conflicts in Filinga range of Gashaka Gumti National Park, Nigeria. Production Agriculture and Technology Journal 1, 15-35.
| Google Scholar |
Fetene A, Bekele T, Tiwari GBGPK (2012) The contribution of ecotourism for sustainable livelihood development in the Nech Sar National Park, Ethiopia. International Journal of Environmental Sciences 1(1), 18-24.
| Google Scholar |
Fetene A, Bekele A, Mengesha G (2019) Effects of climate variability on large mammals in Ethiopian savannas. African Journal of Ecology 57(2), 145-156.
| Google Scholar |
Gashaw T (2015) Threats of Bale Mountains National Park and solutions, Ethiopia. Journal of Physical Science and Environmental Studies 1(2), 10-16.
| Google Scholar |
Getahun BT, Yeshanew YA (2016) Sustainable ecotourism potentials and its challenges in Ethiopia: the Awash National Park in focus. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research 2(4), 41-49.
| Google Scholar |
Girma Z, Mamo Y (2019) Ecotourism as a tool for biodiversity conservation in Ethiopia: opportunities and challenges. African Journal of Ecology 57(3), 345-357.
| Google Scholar |
Gottelli D, Marino J, Sillero ZC, Macdonald DW (2013) The Ethiopian wolf: conservation challenges in a changing climate. Oryx 47(1), 22-30.
| Google Scholar |
Gutema TM, Mersha A, Aticho A, Gemeda DO, Diriba S, Alemu T, Gemechu D, Habtamu T, Dinsa DT, Tsegayef D, Stenseth NC (2023) Wildlife roadkill in southwestern Ethiopia: hotspots, drivers, and victim species. Heliyon 9(9), e19783.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |
Hawkins DE (2004) A protected areas ecotourism competitive cluster approach to catalyse biodiversity conservation and economic growth in Bulgaria. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 12(3), 219-244.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Horncastle VJ, Chambers CL, Dickson BG (2019) Grazing and wildfire effects on small mammals inhabiting montane meadows. The Journal of Wildlife Management 83(3), 534-543.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Idowu OS, Halidu SK, Odebiyi AR (2011) Evaluation of the effect of legislation on wildlife conservation: a case study of Kainji Lake National Park, Kainji, Niger State, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Sciences 1(7), 1609-1615.
| Google Scholar |
Inskip C, Zimmernna A (2009) Human wildlife conflict; perspective of patterns and priorities worldwide. Journal of Physical Science and Environmental Studies 1(2), 10-16.
| Google Scholar |
Jahan KM, Akhter H (2018) Impact of ecotourism on the environment, society and culture of ratargul swamp forest in Sylhet, Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology 8(1), 1-8.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Kasso M, Bekele A (2014) Threats to mammals on fragmented habitats around Asella Town, central Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity 2014, 903898.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Kebede L (2019) Assessing wildlife road mortality hotspots in Ethiopia: implications for conservation. Journal of Wildlife Management 35(3), 112-127.
| Google Scholar |
Kideghesho JR (2001) Mitigating the loss of wildlife habitats in Tanzania: current and future strategies. Tanzania Journal of Forestry and Nature Conservation 74, 149-161.
| Google Scholar |
Kifle Z (2024) Attitudes and perceptions of local people towards the Borena Sayint National Park and its wildlife conservation, Wollo, Ethiopia: implications for biodiversity conservation. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17(4), 610-619.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Kissui BM, Packer C (2019) Ecotourism as a conservation strategy in East Africa: lessons from Tanzania and Kenya. Conservation Biology 33(4), 789-798.
| Google Scholar |
Lavrenchenko L, Bekele A (2017) Diversity and conservation of Ethiopian mammals: what have we learned in 30 years? Ethiopian Journal of Biological Sciences 16, 1-20.
| Google Scholar |
Legese K, Bekele A (2023) Spatiotemporal changes in small mammal community of Wenchi highlands, central Ethiopia. SINET Ethiopian Journal of Science 46(1), 81-92.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Leykun A (2003) The challenges of conserving ethiopian wildlife: Ethiopian wildlife and natural history society. Walia 21, 12-14.
| Google Scholar |
Macha R, Ngowi H (2017) The role of community-based conservation in Tanzania: lessons learned and future directions. Conservation Biology 28(1), 112-127.
| Google Scholar |
Magige FJ (2012) Human–wildlife interaction in Serengeti and Ngorongoro districts of Tanzania: a case study on small mammals. Tanzania Journal of Science 38, 95-103.
| Google Scholar |
Marino J, Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW (2010) The impact of climate change on Ethiopian wolf–livestock conflict. Animal Conservation 13(5), 454-462.
| Google Scholar |
Masanja GF (2014) Human population growth and wildlife extinction in Ugalla ecosystem, western Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Development Studies 5(2), 192-217.
| Google Scholar |
Mekonen S, Chinasho A, Berhanu K, Tesfay S (2017) Threats and conservation challenges of wildlife in Harenna Forest, Harenna Buluk District, south east Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 9(7), 246-255.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Mengist W, Soromessa T, Feyisa GL (2021) Ecotourism for conservation in Ethiopia: a perspective of current practices and (future prospects). Environmental Management 68(2), 234-250.
| Google Scholar |
Mulualem G, Tesfahunegny W (2016) Perspective of key wildlife threats factors from literature and observation perspectives: a way forward for sustainable wildlife genetic resource conservation practices in Ethiopia. Journal of Zoology Studies 3(5), 1-12.
| Google Scholar |
Munns WR, Jr (2006) Assessing risks to wildlife populations from multiple stressors: overview of the problem and research needs. Ecology and Society 11(1), 23-30.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Mwamidi D, Nunow A, Mwasi SH (2012) The use of indigenous knowledge in minimizing human–wildlife conflict: the case of Taita community, Kenya. International Journal of Current Research 4(02), 26-30.
| Google Scholar |
Mwaura L (2020) Impact of habitat fragmentation on wildlife conservation in Kenya and Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation 35(2), 189-204.
| Google Scholar |
Nino K, Mamo Y, Mengesha G, Kibret KS (2017) GIS based ecotourism potential assessment in Munessa Shashemene concession forest and its surrounding area, Ethiopia. Applied Geography 82, 48-58.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Ogutu ZA (2002) The impact of ecotourism on livelihood and natural resource management in Eselenkei, Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya. Land Degradation & Management 13(3), 251-256.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Petros I, Abie K, Esubalew B (2016) Threats, opportunities and community perception of biological resource conservation in Bale Mountains National Park, a case of Dinsho District, Ethiopia. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences 5(4), 6-13.
| Google Scholar |
Randall DA, Marino J, Haydon DT, Sillero-Zubiri C, Knobel DL, Tallents LA, Macdonald DW, Laurenson MK (2006) An integrated disease management strategy for the control of rabies in Ethiopian wolves. Biological Conservation 131(2), 151-162.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Salum LA (2009) Ecotourism and biodiversity conservation in Jozani–Chwaka Bay National Park, Zanzibar. African Journal of Ecology 47(s1), 166-170.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Sangpikul A (2017) Marketing ecotourism through the lens of sustainability in Thailand. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research 11(3), 498-514.
| Google Scholar |
Segan DB, Murray KA, Watson JE (2016) A Global assessment of current and future biodiversity vulnerability to habitat loss–climate change interactions. Global Ecology and Conservation 5, 12-21.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Tadesse SA, Kotler BP (2016) The impacts of humans and livestock encroachments on the habitats of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in Munessa, Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 5(9), 572-583.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Tadesse G, Burhan M (2018) Water pollution in the rift valley lakes of Ethiopia: causes, impacts, and management strategies. Journal of Environmental Management 22(2), 189-204.
| Google Scholar |
Tedla S (1995) Protected areas management crises in Ethiopia. Journal of the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society 16(1), 20-25.
| Google Scholar |
Tefera M (2011) Wildlife in Ethiopia: endemic large mammals. World Journal of Zoology 6(2), 108-116.
| Google Scholar |
Teketay D (2001) Deforestation, wood famine, and environmental degradation in Ethiopia’s highland ecosystems: urgent need for action. Northeast African Studies 8(1), 53-76.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Temesgen F, Warkineh B (2018) Biodiversity status & conservation challenges of protected areas of ethiopia: Awash & Nechsar National Parks in focus. Journal of Natural Sciences Research 8(5), 46-61.
| Google Scholar |
Tesfaye S (2017) Challenges and opportunities for community based ecotourism development in Ethiopia. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 6(3), 1-12.
| Google Scholar |
Tessema M (2017) Community participation in ecotourism and its role in wildlife conservation: the case of Senkele Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary, Ethiopia. Journal of Ecotourism 16(2), 132-148.
| Google Scholar |
Tessema ME (2021) Human–elephant conflict in Ethiopia: climate change as a driver. Global Ecology and Conservation 28, e01678.
| Google Scholar |
Trombulak CS, Frissell AC (2000) Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14(1), 18-30.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Tweheyo M, Tumusiime DM, Turyahabwe N, Asiimwe A, Orikiriza L (2012) Wildlife damage and control methods around Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Pest Management 58(1), 25-31.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Vial F (2010) Conservation science for common ground: developing the necessary tools to manage livestock grazing pressure in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. PhD thesis, University of Glasgow, UK. Available at http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2012/
Wale M, Kassie A, Mulualem G, Tesfahunegn W, Assefa A (2017) Wildlife threats and their relative severity of eastern Ethiopia protected areas. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology 2(4), 59-67.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Williams SD, Vivero JL (2001) Ethiopian wolf conservation programme: linking ecotourism and conservation. Oryx 35(4), 329-333.
| Google Scholar |
Wolff JV (1961) Wildlife in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Forestry Perspective 2(1), 3-13.
| Google Scholar |
Woodroffe R, Frank LG, Lindsey PA, ole Ranah SMK, Romañach S (2007) Livestock husbandry as a tool for carnivore conservation in Africa’s community rangelands: a case–control study. Biodiversity and Conservation 16(4), 1245-1260.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Yalden DW, Largen MJ (1992) The endemic mammals of Ethiopia. Mammal Review 22(3–4), 115-150.
| Google Scholar |
Yihune M, Bekele A, Tefera Z (2008) Human–wildlife conflict in and around the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science 32(1), 57-64.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Yihune M, Bekele A, Tefera Z (2009) Human–gelada baboon conflict in and around the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 47(3), 276-282.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
Yosef M (2014) Attitudes and perceptions of the local people towards benefits and conflicts they get from conservation of the Bale Mountains National Park and Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 7(1), 28-40.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |
