Register      Login
Pacific Conservation Biology Pacific Conservation Biology Society
A journal dedicated to conservation and wildlife management in the Pacific region.
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > PC > PC22037
REVIEW
Contents Vol 30(1)

Do small overwater structures impact marine habitats and biota?

Max R. Lambert https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2318-6445 A * , Reed Ojala-Barbour A , Robert Vadas Jr. A , Aimee McIntyre A and Timothy Quinn A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Science Division, Habitat Program, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, WA 98501, USA.

* Correspondence to: Max.Lambert@dfw.wa.gov

Handling Editor: Karissa Lear

Pacific Conservation Biology 30, PC22037 https://doi.org/10.1071/PC22037
Submitted: 16 September 2022  Accepted: 1 March 2023  Published: 29 March 2023

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing

Abstract

Small overwater structures (SOWS) such as residential docks are common along marine shorelines. Large overwater structures like ferry terminals and commercial piers cast shadows that impair submerged aquatic vegetation and habitat, and alter salmon behaviour and migration. Because of large overwater structure impacts, it is possible that SOWS may also impact marine habitats and organisms. Here, we review the evidence for marine SOWS impacts, finding that relatively little research has been dedicated to the topic. Outside of reducing light and causing well-documented impacts on seagrasses in multiple parts of the world, there is inconsistent or inconclusive evidence for impacts on macroalgae or fish. There is insufficient research on SOWS to draw robust conclusions about these structures’ overall impacts on nearshore environments or how to mediate any possible impacts. Unfortunately, freshwater SOWS or large marine structures are imperfect analogues for inferring marine SOWS impacts. However, we emphasise that an absence of evidence is not evidence for an absence of impacts by SOWS. We outline critical research questions and the relevant study approaches that would address data gaps surrounding SOWS impacts and management.

Keywords: dock, endangered species, estuary, nearshore, pier, Puget Sound, salmon, shoreline development.

References

Able KW, Duffy-Anderson JT (2005) A synthesis of impacts of piers on juvenile fishes and selected invertebrates in the lower Hudson River. Technical Report. IMCS Contribution #2005-13. Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University Marine Station.

Able KW, Grothues TM, Kemp IM (2013) Fine-scale distribution of pelagic fishes relative to a large urban pier. Marine Ecology Progress Series 476, 185-198.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Accola KL, Horne JK, Cordell JR, Toft JD (2022a) Nocturnal distributions of juvenile Pacific salmon along an eco-engineered marine shoreline. Marine Ecology Progress Series 687, 113-123.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Accola KL, Horne JK, Cordell JR, Toft JD (2022b) Acoustic characterization of juvenile Pacific salmon distributions along an eco-engineered seawall. Marine Ecology Progress Series 682, 207-220.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Alexander C (2012) Field assessment and simulation of shading from alternative dock construction materials. Skidaway Institute of Oceanography. University System of Georgia, Savannah, GA.

Beal JL, Schmit BS (1999) The effects of dock height on light irradiance (PAR) and seagrass cover. In ‘Seagrasses’. (Ed. SA Bottone). (CRC Press)

Blanton SL, Thom RM, Southard JA (2001) Documentation of ferry terminal shading, substrate composition, and algal and eelgrass coverage. Prepared for University of Washington, School of Aquatic Fisheries Sciences, Seattle, Washington.

Blanton S, Thom R, Borde A, Diefnderfer H, Southard J (2002) Evaluation of methods to increase light under ferry terminals. Prepared for Washington State Department of Transportation. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. PNNL-13714. Available at https://www.osti.gov/biblio/15001597-evaluation-methods-increase-light-under-ferry-terminals

Burdick DM, Short FT (1999) The effects of boat docks on eelgrass beds in coastal waters of Massachusetts. Environmental Management 23, 231-240.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Caine EA (1987) Potential effect of floating dock communities on a South Carolina estuary. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 108, 83-91.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Carrasquero J (2001) ‘Over-Water structures: freshwater issues.’ (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife)

Chasco B, Kaplan IC, Thomas A, Acevedo-Gutierrez A, Noren D, Ford MJ, Hanson MB, Scordino J, Jeffries S, Pearson S, Marshall KN, Ward EJ (2017a) Estimates of Chinook salmon consumption in Washington State inland waters by four marine mammal predators from 1970 to 2015. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 74, 1173-1194.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chasco BE, Kaplan IC, Thomas AC, Acevedo-Gutierrez A, Noren DP, Ford MJ, Hanson MB, Scordino JJ, Jeffries SJ, Marshall KN, Shelton AO, Matkin C, Burke BJ, Ward EJ (2017b) Competing tradeoffs between increasing marine mammal predation and fisheries harvest of Chinook salmon. Scientific Reports 7, 15439.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cordell JR, Munsch SH, Shelton ME, Toft JD (2017) Effects of piers on assemblage composition, abundance, and taxa richness of small epibenthic invertebrates. Hydrobiologia 802, 211-220.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Dennison WC, Orth RJ, Moore KA, Stevenson JC, Carter V, Kollar S, Bergstrom PW, Batiuk RA (1993) Assessing water quality with submersed aquatic vegetation. BioScience 43, 86-94.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Donoghue C (2014) Technical Report: comparison of light transmitted through different types of decking used in nearshore over-water structures. Washington Department of Natural Resources, Aquatic Assessment and Monitoring Team, Olympia, WA.

Duarte CM (1991) Seagrass depth limits. Aquatic Botany 40, 363-377.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Eriander L, Laas K, Bergström P, Gipperth L, Moksnes P-O (2017) The effects of small-scale coastal development on the eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) distribution along the Swedish west coast – ecological impact and legal challenges. Ocean & Coastal Management 148, 182-194.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fairbanks C (2010) Henry Island Joint-use Dock. Year-3 Monitoring. Post-Construction Eelgrass and Macroalgae Survey. Final Report. Fairbanks Environmental Services, Inc.

Fresh KL, Williams B, Pentilla D (1995) Overwater structures and impacts on eelgrass (Zostera marina) in Puget Sound, Washington. In ‘Puget Sound Research ‘95 Proceedings’. pp. 537–543. (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority: Seattle, WA)

Fresh KL, Williams BW, Wyllie-Echeverria S, Wyllia-Echeverria T (2001) Mitigating impacts of overwater floats on eelgrass Zostera marina l. in Puget Sound, Washington. In ‘Proceedings of the 2001 Puget Sound Research Conference, Olympia, Washington’. (Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team)

Fresh KL, Rothaus D, Mueller KW, Waldbillig C (2003) Greater Lake Washington Chinook Workshop, Shoreline, WA. Lake Washington/Cedar/Sammamish Wastershed. Available at https://www.govlink.org/watersheds/8//reports/2003.aspx

Fresh KL, Wyllie-Echeverria T, Wyllie-Echeverria S, Williams BW (2006) Using light-permeable grating to mitigate impacts of residential floats on eelgrass Zostera marina L. in Puget Sound, Washington. Ecological Engineering 28, 354-362.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gabriel A, Donoghue C (2018) PAR and light extinction beneath various dock deck types, Pleasant Harbor Marina, WA. In ‘South Sound Science Symposium 2018(4), Olympia, WA’. (Central Washington University: Ellensburg). Available at https://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/aqr_aamt_poster_light.pdf

Gardner S (2003) Fighting over the dock of the bay. Kitsap Sun Available at https://products.kitsapsun.com/archive/2003/08-18/233315_fighting_over_the_dock_of_the_b.html.
| Google Scholar |

Gayaldo PF, Nelson K (2006) Preliminary results of light transmission under residential piers in Lake Washington, King County, Washington: a comparison between prisms and grating. Lake and Reservoir Management 22, 245-249.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gladstone W, Courtenay G (2014) Impacts of docks on seagrass and effects of management practices to ameliorate these impacts. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 136, 53-60.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Haas ME, Simenstad CA, Cordell JR, Beauchamp DA, Miller BS (2002) Effects of large overwater structures on epibenthic juvenile salmon prey assemblages in Puget Sound, Washington. Research Report prepared for Washington State Transportation Commission. Available at https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/550.1.pdf

Handeland SO, Jarvi T, Ferno A, Stefansson SO (1996) Osmotic stress, antipredatory behaviour, and mortality of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53, 2673-2680.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Iverson ES, Bannerot SP (1984) Artificial reefs under marina docks in southern Florida. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 4, 294-299.
| Google Scholar |

Iwata M, Komatsu S (1984) Importance of estuarine residence for adaptation of chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) fry to seawater. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 41, 744-749.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kahler T, Grassley M, Beauchamp D (2000) A summary of the effects of bulkheads, piers, and other artificial structures and shorezone development on ESA-listed salmonids in lakes. Final Report prepared for City of Bellevue.

Katla A (2021) Effects of docks on total cover and community assemblage of marine algae. Research in Marine Biology FHL 470. Spring 2021. University of Washington, Research Works Archive. Available at https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/47155

Kelty RA, Bliven S (2003) Environmental and aesthetic impacts of small docks and piers. Workshop report: developing a science-based decision support tool for small dock management, phase 1: status of the science. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series 22. p. 62. Available at https://aquadocs.org/handle/1834/20050

Lambert MR, Ojala-Barbour R, Vadas R Jr., McIntyre AP, Quinn T (2021) Small overwater structures: a review of effects on Puget Sound habitat and salmon. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Available at https://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/02289

Landry JB, Kenworthy WJ, Di Carlo G (2008) The effects of docks on seagrasses, with particular emphasis on the threatened seagrass, Halophila johnsonii. Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research. Report submitted to Protected Resources Division, National Marine Fisheries Service.

Loflin RK (1995) The effects of docks on seagrass beds in the Charlotte Harbor estuary. Florida Scientist 58, 198-205.
| Google Scholar |

Logan JM, Davis A, Markos C, Ford KH (2018a) Effects of docks on salt marsh vegetation: an evaluation of ecological impacts and the efficacy of current design standards. Estuaries and Coasts 41, 661-675.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Logan JM, Voss S, Davis A, Ford KH (2018b) An experimental evaluation of dock shading impacts on salt marsh vegetation in a New England estuary. Estuaries and Coasts 41, 13-24.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Logan JM, Boeri A, Carr J, Evans T, Feeney EM, Frew K, Schenck F, Ford KH (2022) A review of habitat impacts from residential docks and recommended best management practices with an emphasis on the northeastern United States. Estuaries and Coasts 45, 1189-1216.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mayer-Pinto M, Dafforn KA, Bugnot AB, Glasby TM, Johnston EL (2018) Artificial structures alter kelp functioning across an urbanised estuary. Marine Environmental Research 139, 136-143.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Moore ME, Berejikian BA (2022) Coastal infrastructure alters behavior and increases predation mortality of threatened Puget Sound steelhead smolts. Ecosphere 13(4), e4022.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Moore M, Berejikian BA, Tezak EP (2013) A floating bridge disrupts seaward migration and increases mortality of steelhead smolts in Hood Canal, Washington State. PLoS ONE 8, e73427.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mulvihill EL, Francisco CA, Glad JB, Kaster KB, Wilson RE (1980) Biological impacts of minor shoreline structures on the coastal environment: state of the art review. Volumes I & II. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program FWS/OBS 77(51). pp. 156–306. Available at https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CZIC-qh541-5-c65-b4-1980-v1/html/CZIC-qh541-5-c65-b4-1980-v1.htm

Mumford TF Jr (2007) Kelp and eelgrass in Puget Sound. Puget Sound nearshore partnership report no. 2007-05. Published by Seattle District, U.S Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle, Washington.

Munsch SH, Cordell JR, Toft JD, Morgan EE (2014) Effects of seawalls and piers on fish assemblages and juvenile salmon feeding behavior. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 34, 814-827.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Munsch SH, Cordell JR, Toft JD (2017) Effects of shoreline armouring and overwater structures on coastal and estuarine fish: opportunities for habitat improvement. Journal of Applied Ecology 54, 1373-1384.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Nahirnick NK, Costa M, Schroeder S, Sharma T (2020) Long-term eelgrass habitat change and associated human impacts on the west coast of Canada. Journal of Coastal Research 36, 30-40.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

NAIP (2017) National Agricultural Imagery Program. United States Department of Agriculture.

Nightingale B, Simenstad CA (2001) Overwater structures: marine issues. WA-RD 508.1. Washington State Transportation Commission, Planning and Capital Program Management.

NOAA Fisheries (2018) Puget Sound over water structures 2018. Puget Sound Habitat Status and Trend Monitoring Program (PSHSTMP). Salmon Habitat Status and Trend Monitoring Program. Available at https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/map/salmon-habitat-status-and-trend-monitoring-program-data

Obaza AK, Williams JP (2018) Spatial and temporal dynamics of the overwater structure fouling community in southern California. Marine and Freshwater Research 69, 1771-1783.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ono K, Simenstad CA (2014) Reducing the effect of overwater structures on migrating juvenile salmon: an experiment with light. Ecological Engineering 71, 180-189.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ono K, Simenstad CA, Toft JD, Southard SL, Sobocinski KL, Borde A (2010) Assessing and mitigating dock shading impacts on the behavior of juvenile Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.): can artificial light mitigate the effects? Technical report prepared for Washington State Department of Transportation.

PSRC (2018) 2050 Forecast of People and Jobs. Puget Sound Research Council. Executive Board. Available at https://www.psrc.org/sites/default/files/eb201801-pres-2050forecastpeoplejobs.pdf

Quinn TP (2005) ‘The behavior and ecology of Pacific salmon and trout.’ (The University of Washington Press: Seattle)

Rehr AP, Williams GD, Tolimieri N, Levin PS (2014) Impacts of terrestrial and shoreline stressors on eelgrass in Puget Sound: an expert elicitation. Coastal Management 42, 246-262.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sagerman J, Hansen JP, Wikström SA (2020) Effects of boat traffic and mooring infrastructure on aquatic vegetation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ambio 49, 517-530.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sanger DM, Holland AF, Gainey C (2004) Cumulative impacts of dock shading on Spartina alterniflora in South Carolina estuaries. Environmental Management 33, 741-748.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sawyer AC, Toft JD, Cordell JR (2020) Seawall as salmon habitat: eco-engineering improves the distribution and foraging of juvenile Pacific salmon. Ecological Engineering 151, 105856.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schlenger P, MacLennan A, Iverson E, Fresh K, Tanner C, Lyons B, Todd S, Carman R, Myers D, Campbell S, Wick A (2011) Strategic needs assessment: analysis of nearshore ecosystem process degradation in Puget Sound. Prepared for the Puget Sound Nearshore Ecosystem Restoration Project. Technical Report 2011-02.

Schreffler DK, Moursund RA, Schafer JA (1999) Impacts of ferry terminals on juvenile salmon migrating along Puget Sound shorelines. Phase II: field studies at Port Townsend Ferry Terminal. Prepared for Washington State Transportation Commission.

Shafer DJ (1999) The effects of dock shading on the seagrass Halodule wrightii in Perdido Bay, Alabama. Estuaries 22, 936-943.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Shafer DJ, Karazsia J, Carubba L, Martin C (2008) Evaluation of regulatory guidelines to minimize impacts to seagrasses from single-family residential dock structures in Florida and Puerto Rico. US Army Corps of Engineers Engineer Research and Development Center. Wetlands Regulatory Assisance Program. ERDC/EL TR-08-41.

Sheldon RB, Boylen CW (1977) Maximum depth inhabited by aquatic vascular plants. American Midland Naturalist 97, 248-254.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Simenstad CA, Nightingale BJ, Thom RM, Shreffler DK, Wagner P (1999) Impacts of ferry terminals on juvenile salmon migrating along Puget Sound shorelines. Phase I: synthesis of State of Knowledge. Research Report prepared for Washington State Transportation Commission.

Simmons B (2014) Waterfront development: will new rules harm fish, Puget Sound? Crosscut. Available at https://crosscut.com/2014/08/waterfront-development-rules-fish-puget-sound

Southard SL, Thom RM, Williams GD, Toft JD, May CD, McMichael GA, Vuelick JA, Newell JT, Southard JA (2006) Impacts of ferry terminals on juvenile salmon movement along Puget Sound Shorelines. Research Report prepared for the Washington State Department of Transportation.

Strickland JDH (1958) Solar radiation penetrating the ocean. A review of requirements, data and methods of measurement, with particular reference to photosynthetic productivity. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada 15(3), 453-493.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Szypulski EJ (2018) Ecological effects of overwater structures on subtidal kelp, Northern Puget Sound, Washington. Master of Science, Central Washington University, Ellensburg. p. 160. Available at https://digitalcommons.cwu.edu/etd/1052

Tabor RA, Piaskowski RM (2002) Nearshore habitat use by juvenile Chinook salmon in lentic systems of the Lake Washington Basin, Annual Report, 2001. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Western Washington Office, Division of Fisheries and Watershed Assessment, Lacy, Washington.

Tabor RA, Fresh KL, Piaskowski RM, Gearns HA, Hayes DB (2011) Habitat use by juvenile Chinook salmon in the nearshore areas of Lake Washington: effects of depth, lakeshore development, substrate, and vegetation. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 31, 700-713.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Thom RM, Shreffler DK (1996) Eelgrass meadows near ferry terminals in Puget Sound. Characterization of assemblages and mitigation impacts. Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, Sequim, WA.

Thom RM, Williams GD (2001) Executive summary: marine and estuarine shoreline modification issues. White Paper submitted to Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Washington Department of Ecology, and Washington Department of Transportation. Available at https://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00054

Thom RM, Antrim LD, Borde AB, Gardiner WW, Shreffler DK, Farley PG, Norris JG, Wyllie-Echeverria S, McKenzie TP (1998) Puget Sound’s eelgrass meadows: factors contributing to depth distribution and spatial patchiness. In ‘Proceedings of Puget Sound Research’. (Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team, Olympia), WA PNWD-4526.

Thom RM, Southard SL, Borde AB, Stoltz P (2008) Light requirements for growth and survival of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in Pacific Northwest (USA) estuaries. Estuaries and Coasts 31, 969-980.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Toft JD, Cordell JR, Simenstad CA, Stamatiou LA (2007) Fish distribution, abundance, and behavior along city shoreline types in Puget Sound. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 27, 465-480.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Toft JD, Cordell JR, Levey C, Morgan E, Armbrust E (2013) Salmon Bay natural area: restoration aquatic monitoring. Prepared for Seattle Public Utilities, Seattle, WA. p. 31. Available at https://govlink.org/watersheds/8/committees/1307/SBNARestorMonitoringPres7-18-13.pdf

Toft JD, Dethier MN, Howe ER, Buckner EV, Cordell JR (2021) Effectiveness of living shorelines in the Salish Sea. Ecological Engineering 167, 106255.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Vadas RL (1972) Ecological implications of culture studies on Nereocystis luetkeana. Journal of Phycology 8, 196-203.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Williams GD, Thom RM, Shreffler DK, Southard JA, O’Rourke LK, Sargeant SL, Cullinan VI, Moursund R, Stamey M (2003) Assessing overwater structure-related predation risk on juvenile salmon: field observations and recommended protocols. Prepared for the Washington State Depatment of Transportation.

Zaugg WS, Prentice EF, Waknitz FW (1985) Importance of river migration to the development of seawater tolerance in Columbia River anadromous salmonids. Aquaculture 51, 33-47.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |