Register      Login
International Journal of Wildland Fire International Journal of Wildland Fire Society
Journal of the International Association of Wildland Fire
RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Variability in wildland fuel patches following high-severity fire and post-fire treatments in the northern Sierra Nevada

Ian B. Moore A F , Brandon M. Collins B C , Daniel E. Foster A , Ryan E. Tompkins D , Jens T. Stevens https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2234-1960 E and Scott L. Stephens A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Department of Environmental Science Policy and Management, University of California, 130 Mulford Hall No. 3114, Berkeley, CA 94720-3114, USA.

B USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Davis, CA 95618, USA.

C Center for Fire Research and Outreach, College of Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3114, USA.

D University of California Cooperative Extension: Plumas, Sierra, and Lassen Counties, Quincy, CA 95971, USA.

E US Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science Center, New Mexico Landscapes Field Station, 301 Dinosaur Trail, Santa Fe, NM 87508, USA.

F Corresponding author. Email: imoore@berkeley.edu

International Journal of Wildland Fire 30(12) 921-932 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF20131
Submitted: 22 August 2020  Accepted: 18 September 2021   Published: 27 October 2021

Journal Compilation © IAWF 2021 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND

Abstract

Surface fuel loads are highly variable in many wildland settings, which can have many important ecological effects, especially during a wildland fire. This variability is not well described by a single metric (e.g. mean load), so quantifying traits such as variability, continuity and spatial arrangement will help more precisely describe surface fuels. This study measured surface fuel variability in the northern Sierra Nevada of California following a high-severity fire that converted a mixed-conifer forest to shrub-dominant vegetation, both before and after a subsequent shrub removal treatment conducted as site preparation for reforestation. Data were collected on vegetation composition, spatial arrangement and biomass load of the common surface fuel components (1–1000-h woody fuel, litter, duff and shrubs). Mean shrub patch length decreased significantly from 9.25 to 1.0 m and mean dead and down surface fuel load decreased significantly from 131.4 to 73.4 Mg ha−1. Additionally, probability of encountering a continuous high fuel load segment decreased after treatment. This work demonstrates a method of quantifying important spatial characteristics of surface fuel that could be used in the next generation of fire behaviour models and provides metrics that land managers may consider when designing post-fire reforestation treatments.

Keywords: fine fuels, woody debris, fuel load, fuel heterogeneity, fuel model, forest structure, mixed conifer, spatial variability.


References

Agee JK, Skinner CN (2005) Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 211, 83–96.
Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Albini FA (1976) Estimating wildfire behavior and effects. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-30. (Ogden, UT)

Andrews PL (2008) BehavePlus Fire Modeling System, version 4.0: variables. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR- 213WWW. (Fort Collins, CO)

Andrews PL (2014) Current status and future needs of the BehavePlus Fire Modeling System. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, 21–33.
Current status and future needs of the BehavePlus Fire Modeling System.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Arroyo LA, Pascual C, Manzanera JA (2008) Fire models and methods to map fuel types: the role of remote sensing. Forest Ecology and Management 256, 1239–1252.
Fire models and methods to map fuel types: the role of remote sensing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Atchley AL, Linn RR, Jonko A, Hoffman CM, Hyman JD, Pimont F, Sieg C, Middleton RS (2021) Effects of fuel spatial distribution on wildland fire behavior. International Journal of Wildland Fire 30, 179–189.
Effects of fuel spatial distribution on wildland fire behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bellows RS, Thomson AC, Helmstedt KJ, York RA, Potts MD (2016) Damage and mortality patterns in young mixed-conifer plantations following prescribed fires in the Sierra Nevada, California. Forest Ecology and Management 376, 193–204.
Damage and mortality patterns in young mixed-conifer plantations following prescribed fires in the Sierra Nevada, California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Blomdahl EM, Kolden CA, Meddens AJH, Lutz JA (2019) The importance of small fire refugia in the Central Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 432, 1041–1052.
The importance of small fire refugia in the Central Sierra Nevada, California, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brown JK (1974) Handbook for inventorying downed woody material. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-16. (Ogden, UT)

Brown JK, Bevins CD (1986) Surface fuel loadings and predicted fire behavior for vegetation types in the northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-358. (Ogden, UT)

Brown JK, See TE (1981) Downed dead woody fuel and biomass in the Northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-117. (Ogden, UT)

Canfield RH (1941) Application of the line interception method in sampling range vegetation. Journal of Forestry 39, 388–394.

Collins BM, Roller GB (2013) Early forest dynamics in stand-replacing fire patches in the northern Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Landscape Ecology 28, 1801–1813.
Early forest dynamics in stand-replacing fire patches in the northern Sierra Nevada, California, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Coop JD, Parks SA, Stevens-Rumann CS, Crausbay SD, Higuera PE, Hurteau MD, Tepley A, Whitman E, Assal T, Collins BM, Davis KT, Dobrowski S, Falk DA, Fornwalt PJ, Fulé PZ, Harvey BJ, Kane VR, Littlefield CE, Margolis EQ, North M, Parisien M, Prichard S, Rodman KC (2020) Wildfire-driven forest conversion in western North American landscapes. Bioscience 70, 659–673.
Wildfire-driven forest conversion in western North American landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 32821066PubMed |

Coppoletta M, Merriam KE, Collins BM (2016) Post-fire vegetation and fuel development influences fire severity patterns in reburns. Ecological Applications 26, 686–699.
Post-fire vegetation and fuel development influences fire severity patterns in reburns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 27411243PubMed |

DeBano LF, Neary DG, Ffolliott PF (1998) ‘Fire’s effects on ecosystems.’ (John Wiley and Sons: New York)

Dunn CJ, Bailey JD (2015) Modeling the direct effects of salvage logging on long-term temporal fuel dynamics in dry-mixed conifer forests. Forest Ecology and Management 341, 93–109.
Modeling the direct effects of salvage logging on long-term temporal fuel dynamics in dry-mixed conifer forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Finney MA (2004) FARSITE: Fire Area Simulator – model development and evaluation. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Research Paper RMRS-RP-4 Revised. (Ogden, UT)

Finney MA, Cohen JD, Grenfell IC, Yedinak KM (2010) An examination of fire spread thresholds in discontinuous fuel beds. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 163–170.
An examination of fire spread thresholds in discontinuous fuel beds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Finney MA, Cohen JD, Forthofer JM, McAllister SS, Gollner MJ, Gorham DJ, Saito K, Akafuah NK, Adam BA, English JD (2015) Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112, 9833–9838.
Role of buoyant flame dynamics in wildfire spread.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26183227PubMed |

Foster DE, Stephens SL, Moghaddas J, Van Wagtendonk J (2018) Rfuels: Forest Fuels from Brown’s Transects. Berkeley, CA. Available at https://github.com/danfosterfire/Rfuels

Foster DE, Battles JJ, Collins BM, York RA, Stephens SL (2020) Potential wildfire and carbon stability in frequent-fire forests in the Sierra Nevada: trade-offs from a long-term study. Ecosphere 11, e03198
Potential wildfire and carbon stability in frequent-fire forests in the Sierra Nevada: trade-offs from a long-term study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fry DL, Stephens SL (2010) Stand-level spatial dependence in an old- growth Jeffrey pine–mixed conifer forest, Sierra San Pedro Martir, Mexico. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40, 1803–1814.
Stand-level spatial dependence in an old- growth Jeffrey pine–mixed conifer forest, Sierra San Pedro Martir, Mexico.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fry DL, Stevens JT, Potter AT, Collins BM, Stephens SL (2018) Surface fuel accumulation and decomposition in old-growth pine–mixed conifer forests, northwestern Mexico. Fire Ecology 14, 6
Surface fuel accumulation and decomposition in old-growth pine–mixed conifer forests, northwestern Mexico.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gregoire TG, Monkevich NS (1994) The reflection method of line intercept sampling to eliminate boundary bias. Environmental and Ecological Statistics 1, 219–226.
The reflection method of line intercept sampling to eliminate boundary bias.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hessburg PF, Spies TA, Perry DA, Skinner CN, Taylor AH, Brown PM, Stephens SL, Larson AJ, Churchill DJ, Povak NA, Singleton PH, McComb B, Zielinski WJ, Collins BM, Salter RB, Keane JJ, Franklin JF, Riegel G (2016) Tamm Review: Management of mixed-severity fire regime forests in Oregon, Washington, and northern California. Forest Ecology and Management 366, 221–250.
Tamm Review: Management of mixed-severity fire regime forests in Oregon, Washington, and northern California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hiers JK, O’Brien JJ, Mitchell RJ, Grego JM, Loudermilk EL (2009) The wildland fuel cell concept: an approach to characterize fine-scale variation in fuels and fire in frequently burned longleaf pine forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 315–325.
The wildland fuel cell concept: an approach to characterize fine-scale variation in fuels and fire in frequently burned longleaf pine forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hurteau M, North M (2009) Fuel treatment effects on tree-based forest carbon storage and emissions under modeled wildfire scenarios. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7, 409–414.
Fuel treatment effects on tree-based forest carbon storage and emissions under modeled wildfire scenarios.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keane RE (2013) Describing wildland surface fuel loading for fire management: a review of approaches, methods and systems. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 51–62.
Describing wildland surface fuel loading for fire management: a review of approaches, methods and systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Keane RE, Gray K, Bacciu V, Leirfallom S (2012) Spatial scaling of wildland fuels for six forest and rangeland ecosystems of the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Landscape Ecology 27, 1213–1234.
Spatial scaling of wildland fuels for six forest and rangeland ecosystems of the northern Rocky Mountains, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

King KJ, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Chapman J, Marsden-Smedley JB (2008) The relative importance of fine-scale fuel mosaics on reducing fire risk in south-west Tasmania, Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 421–430.
The relative importance of fine-scale fuel mosaics on reducing fire risk in south-west Tasmania, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Liang S, Hurteau MD, Westerling AL (2017) Potential decline in carbon carrying capacity under projected climate–wildfire interactions in the Sierra Nevada. Scientific Reports 7, 2420
Potential decline in carbon carrying capacity under projected climate–wildfire interactions in the Sierra Nevada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28546560PubMed |

Loudermilk EL, Achtemeier GL, O’brien JJ, Hiers JK, Hornsby BS (2014) High-resolution observations of combustion in heterogeneous surface fuels. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, 1016–1026.
High-resolution observations of combustion in heterogeneous surface fuels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lydersen JM, Collins BM (2018) Change in vegetation patterns over a large forested landscape based on historical and contemporary aerial photography. Ecosystems 21, 1348–1363.
Change in vegetation patterns over a large forested landscape based on historical and contemporary aerial photography.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lydersen JM, Collins BM, Knapp EE, Roller GB, Stephens SL (2015) Relating fuel loads to overstorey structure and composition in a fire-excluded Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, 484–494.
Relating fuel loads to overstorey structure and composition in a fire-excluded Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lydersen JM, Collins BM, Coppoletta M, Jaffe MR, Northrop H, Stephens SL (2019) Fuel dynamics and reburn severity following high severity fire in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Fire Ecology 15, 43
Fuel dynamics and reburn severity following high severity fire in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McDonald PM, Fiddler GO (2010) Twenty-five years of managing vegetation in conifer plantations in northern and central California: Results, application, principles, and challenges. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, General Technical Report PSW-GTR-231. (Albany, CA).

McGinnis TW, Keeley JE, Stephens SL, Roller GB (2010a) Fuel buildup and potential fire behavior after stand-replacing fires, logging fire-killed trees and herbicide shrub removal in Sierra Nevada forests. Forest Ecology and Management 260, 22–35.
Fuel buildup and potential fire behavior after stand-replacing fires, logging fire-killed trees and herbicide shrub removal in Sierra Nevada forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McGinnis TW, Shook CD, Keeley JE (2010b) Estimating aboveground biomass for broadleaf woody plants and young conifers in Sierra Nevada, California, forests. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 25, 203–209.
Estimating aboveground biomass for broadleaf woody plants and young conifers in Sierra Nevada, California, forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McIver JD, Ottmar R (2007) Fuel mass and stand structure after post-fire logging of a severely burned ponderosa pine forest in northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management 238, 268–279.
Fuel mass and stand structure after post-fire logging of a severely burned ponderosa pine forest in northeastern Oregon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Meyer MD, Long JW, Safford HD (2021) Post-fire restoration framework for national forests in California. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, General Technical Report PSW-GTR-270. (Albany, CA)

Miller J, Safford H, Crimmins M, Thode A (2009) Quantitative evidence for increasing forest fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and Southern Cascade Mountains, California and Nevada, USA. Ecosystems 12, 16–32.
Quantitative evidence for increasing forest fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and Southern Cascade Mountains, California and Nevada, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moody TJ, Fites-Kaufman J, Stephens SL (2006) Fire history and climate influences from forests in the Northern Sierra Nevada, USA. Fire Ecology 2, 115–141.
Fire history and climate influences from forests in the Northern Sierra Nevada, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

North MP, Stine PA, O’Hara KL, Zielinski WJ, Stephens SL (2009) An ecosystems management strategy for Sierra mixed-conifer forests, with addendum. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, General Technical Report PSW-GTR-220. (Albany, CA)

North MP, Collins BM, Safford HD, Stephenson NL (2016) Montane forests. In ‘Ecosystems of California’. (Eds Mooney H, Zavaleta E) pp 553–577. (University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA)

Ottmar RD (2014) Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: modeling fuel consumption. Forest Ecology and Management 317, 41–50.
Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: modeling fuel consumption.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ottmar RD, Sandberg DV, Riccardi CL, Prichard SJ (2007) An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system – quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 2383–2393.
An overview of the fuel characteristic classification system – quantifying, classifying, and creating fuelbeds for resource planning.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pearce G, Finney MA, Strand T, Katurji M, Clements C (2019) New Zealand prescribed fire experiments to test convective heat transfer in wildland fires. In ‘Proceedings of the VI International Fire Behavior and Fuels Conference’, 29 April–3 May 2019, Sydney, NSW. pp 1–6. (International Association of Wildland Fire, Missoula, Montana, USA)

Pinheiro J, Bates D, DebRoy S, Sarkar D, R Core Team (2020) nlme: Linear and non-linear mixed effects models. R package version 3.1–148. Available at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nlme

R Core Team (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. (Vienna, Austria) Available at https://www.R-project.org/

Reiner AL, Vaillant NM, Fites-Kaufman J, Dailey SN (2009) Mastication and prescribed fire impacts on fuels in a 25-year-old ponderosa pine plantation, southern Sierra Nevada. Forest Ecology and Management 258, 2365–2372.
Mastication and prescribed fire impacts on fuels in a 25-year-old ponderosa pine plantation, southern Sierra Nevada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Reinhardt E, Keane RE (1998) FOFEM – a first order fire effects model. Fire Management Notes 58, 25–28.

Riccardi CL, Prichard SJ, Sandberg DV, Ottmar RD (2007) Quantifying physical characteristics of wildland fuels using the Fuel Characteristic Classification System. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 2413–2420.
Quantifying physical characteristics of wildland fuels using the Fuel Characteristic Classification System.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ritter SM, Hoffman CM, Battaglia MA, Stevens-Rumann CS, Mell WE (2020) Fine-scale fire patterns mediate forest structure in frequent-fire ecosystems. Ecosphere 11, e03177
Fine-scale fire patterns mediate forest structure in frequent-fire ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rothermel RC (1972) A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper RP-INT-115. (Ogden, UT)

Safford HD, Stevens JT (2017) Natural Range of Variation (NRV) for yellow pine and mixed-conifer forests in the Sierra Nevada, southern Cascades, and Modoc and Inyo National Forests, California, USA. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, General Technical Report PSW-GTR-256. (Albany, CA).

Scott JH, Burgan RE (2005) Standard fire behavior fuel models: a comprehensive set for use with Rothermel’s surface fire spread model. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-153. (Fort Collins, CO)

Shive KL, Preisler HK, Welch KR, Safford HD, Butz RJ, O’Hara KL, Stephens SL (2018) From the stand scale to the landscape scale: predicting the spatial patterns of forest regeneration after disturbance. Ecological Applications 28, 1626–1639.
From the stand scale to the landscape scale: predicting the spatial patterns of forest regeneration after disturbance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29809291PubMed |

Steel ZL, Koontz MJ, Safford HD (2018) The changing landscape of wildfire: burn pattern trends and implications for California’s yellow pine and mixed conifer forests. Landscape Ecology 33, 1159–1176.
The changing landscape of wildfire: burn pattern trends and implications for California’s yellow pine and mixed conifer forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stephens CW, Collins BM, Rogan J (2020) Land ownership impacts post-wildfire forest regeneration in Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests. Forest Ecology and Management 468, 118161
Land ownership impacts post-wildfire forest regeneration in Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stephens SL, Finney MA (2002) Prescribed fire mortality of Sierra Nevada mixed conifer tree species: effects of crown damage and forest floor combustion. Forest Ecology and Management 162, 261–271.
Prescribed fire mortality of Sierra Nevada mixed conifer tree species: effects of crown damage and forest floor combustion.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stephens SL, Moghaddas JJ (2005a) Silvicultural and reserve impacts on potential fire behavior and forest conservation: 25 years of experience from Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forests. Biological Conservation 125, 369–379.
Silvicultural and reserve impacts on potential fire behavior and forest conservation: 25 years of experience from Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stephens SL, Moghaddas JJ (2005b) Experimental fuel treatment impacts on forest structure, potential fire behavior, and predicted tree mortality in a mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management 215, 21–36.
Experimental fuel treatment impacts on forest structure, potential fire behavior, and predicted tree mortality in a mixed conifer forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stephens SL, Lydersen JM, Collins BM, Fry DL, Meyer MD (2015) Historical and current landscape-scale ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest structure in the southern Sierra Nevada. Ecosphere 6, 79
Historical and current landscape-scale ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest structure in the southern Sierra Nevada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stevens JT, Collins BM, Miller JD, North MP, Stephens SL (2017) Changing spatial patterns of stand-replacing fire in California conifer forests. Forest Ecology and Management 406, 28–36.
Changing spatial patterns of stand-replacing fire in California conifer forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Thaxton JM, Platt WJ (2006) Small-scale fuel variation alters fire intensity and shrub abundance in a pine savanna. Ecology 87, 1331–1337.
Small-scale fuel variation alters fire intensity and shrub abundance in a pine savanna.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16761611PubMed |

Thompson JR, Spies TA, Ganio LM (2007) Reburn severity in managed and unmanaged vegetation in a large wildfire. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 10743–10748.
Reburn severity in managed and unmanaged vegetation in a large wildfire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17563370PubMed |

Tubbesing CL, York RA, Stephens SL, Battles JJ (2020) Rethinking fire‐adapted species in an altered fire regime. Ecosphere 11, e03091
Rethinking fire‐adapted species in an altered fire regime.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Tubbesing CL, Young DN, York RA, Stephens SL, Battles JJ (2021) Incorporating shrub neighborhood dynamics to predict forest succession trajectories in an altered fire regime. Ecosystems
Incorporating shrub neighborhood dynamics to predict forest succession trajectories in an altered fire regime.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

USDA Forest Service (2004) Sierra Nevada Framework Plan Amendment. Final Environmental Impact Statement and Record of Decision. US Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region. (Vallejo, CA, USA).

Vakili E, Hoffman CM, Keane RE, Tinkham WT, Dickinson Y (2016) Spatial variability of surface fuels in treated and untreated ponderosa pine forests of the Southern Rocky Mountains. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 1156–1168.
Spatial variability of surface fuels in treated and untreated ponderosa pine forests of the Southern Rocky Mountains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

van Wagtendonk JW, Benedict JM, Sydoriak WM (1996) Physical properties of woody fuel particles of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire 6, 117–123.
Physical properties of woody fuel particles of Sierra Nevada conifers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

van Wagtendonk JW, Benedict JM, Sydoriak WM (1998) Fuel bed characteristics of Sierra Nevada conifers. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 13, 73–84.
Fuel bed characteristics of Sierra Nevada conifers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Webster KM, Halpern CB (2010) Long-term vegetation responses to reintroduction and repeated use of fire in mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada. Ecosphere 1, art9
Long-term vegetation responses to reintroduction and repeated use of fire in mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase Western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313, 940–943.
Warming and earlier spring increase Western US forest wildfire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 16825536PubMed |

Wiggers MS, Kirkman LK, Boyd RS, Hiers JK (2013) Fine-scale variation in surface fire environment and legume germination in the longleaf pine ecosystem. Forest Ecology and Management 310, 54–63.
Fine-scale variation in surface fire environment and legume germination in the longleaf pine ecosystem.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Zald HS, Dunn CJ (2018) Severe fire weather and intensive forest management increase fire severity in a multi‐ownership landscape. Ecological Applications 28, 1068–1080.
Severe fire weather and intensive forest management increase fire severity in a multi‐ownership landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 29698575PubMed |

Zhang J, Webster J, Powers RF, Mills J (2008) Reforestation after the Fountain Fire in northern California: an untold success story. Journal of Forestry 106, 425–430.

Zhang J, Powers RF, Oliver WW, Young DH (2013) Response of ponderosa pine plantations to competing vegetation control in northern California, USA: a meta-analysis. Forestry 86, 3–11.
Response of ponderosa pine plantations to competing vegetation control in northern California, USA: a meta-analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ziegler JP, Hoffman C, Battaglia M, Mell W (2017) Spatially explicit measurements of forest structure and fire behavior following restoration treatments in dry forests. Forest Ecology and Management 386, 1–12.
Spatially explicit measurements of forest structure and fire behavior following restoration treatments in dry forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |