The human and social impacts of an Australian mouse plague

Lucy Carter; Kerry Collins; Aditi Mankad; Walter Okello; Peter R. Brown

doi:10.1071/WR25016

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Previous Next Contents Vol 52(8)

The human and social impacts of an Australian mouse plague

Lucy Carter

^A ^* , Kerry Collins

^A , Aditi Mankad ^A , Walter Okello ^B and Peter R. Brown

^C

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A CSIRO Environment, Brisbane, Australia.

^B CSIRO Environment, Black Mountain, Australia.

^C CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Black Mountain, Australia.

^* Correspondence to: lucy.carter@csiro.au

Handling Editor: Lily van Eeden

Wildlife Research 52, WR25016 https://doi.org/10.1071/WR25016

Submitted: 7 February 2025 Accepted: 3 July 2025 Published: 8 August 2025

© 2025 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Context

From mid-2020 until the end of 2021, a significant mouse plague affected areas of Southern Queensland, Western Victoria, South Australia and regional New South Wales (NSW). In 2023, 2 years after this event, a team of social scientists visited regional NSW farming communities and businesses to document the human and social impacts of this catastrophic event.

Aims

Whereas scientific knowledge of the impacts of rodent incursions on broader farming systems and ecosystems has advanced, social research to address the human dimensions of mouse plagues has been sparse. We describe and detail the human and social impacts of the 2021 NSW mouse (Mus musculus) plague.

Methods

A series of interviews, focus group discussions and informal conversations were conducted across selected regional NSW locations. The data collected were analysed using latent content analysis technique. Our methodological design addressed numerous ethical issues raised by fieldwork in this setting.

Key results

Five key themes were uncovered from the data. (1) The social and human impacts of plagues are broad and deep. (2) Plagues are inevitable, sudden, and inseparably linked to existing livelihood pressures. (3) The desperation and despair created by plagues affect individuals, families and communities with vulnerable populations at most risk of lasting harm. (4) Targeted assistance along with government recognition of the widescale impacts of plagues is sought by communities. (5) Curiosity and support for novel technologies to reduce mouse numbers is high along with real-time information platforms to predict and manage outbreaks.

Conclusions

Our research has provided insights into the extensive human and social impacts of plague events, beyond the usual boundaries of plagues in the context of farming system impact or zoonotic disease transmission. We offer recommendations for agencies and service providers to better support rural communities to prepare for and recover from future outbreaks.

Implications

Current research on rodent outbreaks is firmly embedded in agricultural and ecological domains. The breadth of impacts of Australian mouse plagues signals the existence of a much more complex system. This research goes some way in providing a social impact perspective to a problem typically recognised as agricultural.

Keywords: human impacts, invasive pests, mouse plague, qualitative research, rodent outbreak, rural NSW, social dimensions, social research.

References

Aatamila M, Verkasalo PK, Korhonen MJ, Suominen AL, Hirvonen M-R, Viluksela MK, Nevalainen A (2011) Odour annoyance and physical symptoms among residents living near waste treatment centres. Environmental Research 111, 164-170.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Andreassen HP, Sundell J, Ecke F, Halle S, Haapakoski M, Henttonen H, Huitu O, Jacob J, Johnsen K, Koskela E, Luque-Larena JJ, Lecomte N, Leirs H, Mariën J, Neby M, Rätti O, Sievert T, Singleton GR, van Cann J, Vanden Broecke B, Ylönen H (2021) Population cycles and outbreaks of small rodents: ten essential questions we still need to solve. Concepts, Reviews and Syntheses 195, 601-622.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Australian Geographic (2021) A land of flooding plagues: Australia’s history of mice and rat irruptions. Available at https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2021/04/a-land-of-flooding-plagues-australias-history-of-mice-and-rat-irruptions/ [accessed 15 May 2025]

Berkers E, Pop I, Cloïn M, Eugster A, van Oers H (2021) The relative effects of self-reported noise and odour annoyance on psychological distress: different effects across sociodemographic groups? PLoS ONE 16, e0258102.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bradshaw CJA, Hoskins AJ, Haubrock PJ, Cuthbert RN, Diagne C, Leroy B, Andrews L, Page B, Cassey P, Sheppard AW, Courchamp F (2021) Detailed assessment of the reported economic costs of invasive species in Australia. NeoBiota 67, 511-550.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brown PR, Henry S (2022) Impacts of house mice on sustainable fodder storage in Australia. Agronomy 12, 254.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Brown PR, Singleton GR, Pech RP, Hinds LA, Krebs CJ (2010) Rodent outbreaks in Australia: mouse plagues in cereal crops. In ‘Rodent outbreaks: ecology and impacts’. (Eds G Singleton, S Belmain, P Brown, B Hardy) pp. 225–238. (International Rice Research Institute: Los Baños, Philippines)

Brown PR, Henry S, Pech RP, Cruz J, Hinds LA, van de Weyer N, Caley P, Ruscoe WA (2022) It’s a trap: effective methods for monitoring house mouse populations in grain-growing regions of south-eastern Australia. Wildlife Research 49, 347-359.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Buckle AP, Pelz H-J (2015) Rodent control in practice: temperate filed crops and forestry. In ‘Rodent pests and their control’. (Eds AP Buckle, RH Smith) pp. 247–268. (CAB International)

Byers KA, Cox SM, Lam R, Himsworth CG (2019) ‘They’re always there‘: resident experiences of living with rats in a disadvantaged urban neighbourhood. BMC Public Health 19, 853.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Capizzi D, Bertolino S, Mortelliti A (2014) Rating the rat: global patterns and research priorities in impacts and management of rodent pests. Mammal Review 44, 148-162.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Carter L, Mankad A, Zhang A, Curnock MI, Pollard CRJ (2021) A multidimensional framework to inform stakeholder engagement in the science and management of invasive and pest animal species. Biological Invasions 23, 625-640.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Carter L, Mankad A, Okello W (2024) Where exactly do the social and behavioural sciences fit in One Health? Frontiers in Public Health 12, 1386298.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Caughley J, Monamy V, Heiden K (1994) ‘Impact of the 1993 mouse plague.’ Occasional Paper Series No. 7. (Grains Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, ACT, Australia)

Charmaz K, Thornberg R (2021) The pursuit of quality in grounded theory. Qualitative Research in Psychology 18, 305-327.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chelule PK, Mbentse A (2021) Rat infestation in Gauteng Province: lived experiences of Kathlehong Township residents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, 11280.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

CSIRO (2021) Monitoring mice in Australia – March 2021. Issue 24. CSIRO and GRDC. Available at https://research.csiro.au/rm/mouse-activity-updates

Darlington Y, Scott D. (2020) ‘Qualitative research in practice: stories from the field.’ (Routledge: New York, NY, USA)

Donga TK, Bosma L, Gawa N, Meheretu Y (2022) Rodents in agriculture and public health in Malawi: farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Frontiers in Agronomy 4, 936908.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ecker S, Please PM, Maybery DJ (2017) Constantly chasing dogs: assessing landholder stress from wild dog attacks on livestock using quantitative and qualitative methods. Australasian Journal of Environmental Management 24, 16-30.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fenge LA, Oakley L, Taylor B, Beer S (2019) The impact of sensitive research on the researcher: preparedness and positionality. International Journal of Qualitative Methods 18, 1-8.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

German D, Latkin CA (2016) Exposure to urban rats as a community stressor among low-income urban residents. Journal of Community Psychology 44, 249-262.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Head L (2017) The social dimensions of invasive plants. Nature Plants 3, 17075.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Howald G, Donlan CJ, Galván JP, Russell JC, Parkes J, Samaniego A, Wang Y, Veitch D, Genovesi P, Pascal M, Saunders A, Tershy B (2007) Invasive rodent eradication on islands. Conservation Biology 21, 1258-1268.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kleinheksel AJ, Rockich-Winston N, Tawfik H, Wyatt TR (2020) Demystifying content analysis. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 84, 7113.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Korstjens I, Moser A (2018) Series: practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 4: trustworthiness and publishing. European Journal of General Practice 24, 120-124.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lauret V, Delibes-Mateos M, Mougeot F, Arroyo-Lopez B (2020) Understanding conservation conflicts associated with rodent outbreaks in farmland areas. Ambio 49, 1122-1133.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Leitschuh CM, Kanavy D, Backus GA, Valdez RX, Serr M, Pitts EA, Threadgill D, Godwin J (2018) Developing gene drive technologies to eradicate invasive rodents from islands. Journal of Responsible Innovation 5, S121-S138.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lohr MT, Davis RA (2018) Anticoagulant rodenticide use, non-target impacts and regulation: a case study from Australia. Science of The Total Environment 634, 1372-1384.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Low Z, Murray PJ, Naseem N, McGilp D, Doneley B, Beale DJ, Biggs L, Gonzalez-Astudillo V (2024) Evaluating sublethal anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in deceased predatory birds of South-East Queensland, Australia. Discover Toxicology 1, 13.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mankad A, Hobman EV, Carter L (2020) Effects of knowledge and emotion on support for novel synthetic biology applications. Conservation Biology 35, 623-633.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mankad A, Zhang A, Carter L, Curnock M (2022) A path analysis of carp biocontrol: effect of attitudes, norms, and emotion on acceptance. Biological Invasions 24, 709-723.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

McCosker H, Barnard A, Gerber R (2001) Undertaking sensitive research: issues and strategies for meeting the safety of all participants. Forum: Qualitative Social Research 2(1), 1-14.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Moser A, Korstjens I (2018) Series: practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: sampling, data collection and analysis. European Journal of General Practice 24, 9-18.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Mutze GJ (1993) Cost-effectiveness of poison bait trails for control of house mice in mallee cereal crops. Wildlife Research 20, 445-456.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

NSW Government (2021) Staying healthy during a mouse plague. Available at https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Factsheets/mouse-plague.pdf [accessed 15 May 2025]

Pech R, Brown P, Cruz J, Henry S, Hinds L, Byrom A, West P, Farrell J (2015) ‘Surveillance and forecasts for mouse outbreaks in Australian cropping systems.’ (Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre: Canberra, ACT, Australia)

Randall-Moon H (2024) The mice plague and the assemblage of beastly landscapes in regional and rural Australia. Sociologia Ruralis 64, 222-236.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Reich JA (2021) Power, positionality, and the ethic of care in qualitative research. Qualitative Sociology 44, 575-581.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Salleh A (2021) Flying foxes increasing in urban areas means more potential conflict with humans. Available at https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-04-25/flying-fox-in-urban-areas-how-to-avoid-conflict-with-humans/100053328 [accessed 17 May 2025]

Saunders GR, Robards GE (1983) Economic considerations of mouse-plague control in irrigated sunflower crops. Crop Protection 2, 153-158.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Savin-Baden M, Major C (2023) ‘Qualitative research: the essential guide to theory and practice.’ (Routledge: London, UK)

Schulze Walgern A, Hecker O, Walther B, Boelhauve M, Mergenthaler M (2023) Farmers’ attitudes in connection with the potential for rodent prevention in livestock farming in a municipality in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Animals 13, 3809.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Scientific American (2021) Australia’s plague of mice is devastating and could get a lot worse. Available at https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/australias-plague-of-mice-is-devastating-and-could-get-a-lot-worse/ [accessed 15 May 2025]

Shah SN, Fossa A, Steiner AS, Kane J, Levy JI, Adamkiewicz G, Bennett-Fripp WM, Reid M (2018) Housing quality and mental health: the association between pest infestation and depressive symptoms among public housing residents. Journal of Urban Health 95, 691-702.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Shams H (2021) Mouse plague impacting NSW residents’ mental health like that of natural disasters, expert says. Available at https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-26/mouse-plague-impacting-nsw-residents-mental-health/100091634 [accessed 15 May 2025]

Shaw RM, Howe J, Beazer J, Carr T (2019) Ethics and positionality in qualitative research with vulnerable and marginal groups. Qualitative Research 20, 277-293.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Singleton GR, Redhead TD (1989) House mouse plagues. In ‘Mediterranean landscapes in Australia: mallee ecosystems and their management’. (Eds JC Noble, RA Bradstock) pp. 418–433. (CSIRO Australia)

Singleton GR, Tann CR, Krebs CJ (2007) Landscape ecology of house mouse outbreaks in south-eastern Australia. Journal of Applied Ecology 44, 644-652.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

White PCL, Ward AI (2010) Interdisciplinary approaches for the management of existing and emerging human-wildlife conflicts. Wildlife Research 37, 623-629.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

White PCL, Ford AES, Clout MN, Engeman RM, Roy S, Saunders G (2008) Alien invasive vertebrates in ecosystems: pattern, process and the social dimension. Wildlife Research 35, 171-179.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

White J, Taylor J, Brown PR, Henry S, Carter L, Mankad A, Chang W-S, Stanley P, Collins K, Durrheim DN, Thompson K (2024) The New South Wales mouse plague 2020–2021: a one health description. One Health 18, 100753.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wojnarowska M, Sołtysik M, Sagan A, Stobiecka J, Plichta J, Plichta G (2020) Impact of odor nuisance on preferred place of residence. Sustainability 12, 3181.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Zufiaurre E, Abba AM, Bilenca D (2021) Damage to silo bags by mammals in agroecosystems: a contribution for mitigating human–wildlife conflicts. Wildlife Research 48, 86-96.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |