Register      Login
Marine and Freshwater Research Marine and Freshwater Research Society
Advances in the aquatic sciences
RESEARCH ARTICLE

‘Now it’s not a billabong’: eco-cultural assessment of billabong condition in remote northern Australia

Shaina Russell https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4238-958X A B , Emilie Ens A and Ngukurr Yangbala Rangers
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Level 3, 12 Wally’s Walk, Balaclava Road, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.

B Corresponding author. Email: shaina.russell@mq.edu.au

Marine and Freshwater Research 72(7) 925-941 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF20080
Submitted: 20 March 2020  Accepted: 16 November 2020   Published: 13 January 2021

Abstract

Globally, the value of integrating multiple knowledge systems is being recognised in ecosystem assessments, monitoring and management. This paper describes a participatory eco-cultural assessment of freshwater billabongs in the South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area, northern Australia, that drew on Indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) and Western science using social and natural science research methods. IEK holders were concerned about feral ungulates trampling and consuming traditional bush food resources and reducing water quality, affecting eco-cultural values of billabongs. We recorded qualitative IEK and conducted a multivariate snapshot assessment of billabong physiochemical water quality, ground condition, yarlbun (water lily) cover and macroinvertebrate assemblage that showed distinct seasonal variation. Although both knowledge systems revealed indicators of seasonal change over 1 year, IEK also revealed longer-term changes and that degradation of billabongs in the late dry season was exacerbated by feral ungulates. This participatory research illustrates how the condition of freshwater systems can be assessed using cross-cultural techniques, how these techniques can reveal more nuanced understandings of eco-cultural condition and the value of including IEK for setting ecological baselines and recording long-term change.

Keywords: cross-cultural, ecological regime shift, feral ungulates, Indigenous ecological knowledge, seasonal change, socio-ecological systems, South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area, wetland.


References

Albrecht, G., McMahon, C., Bowman, D. M. J. S., and Bradshaw, C. (2009). Convergence of culture, ecology, and ethics: management of feral swamp buffalo in northern Australia. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 22, 361–378.
Convergence of culture, ecology, and ethics: management of feral swamp buffalo in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Altman, J. C., and Kerins, S. P. (2012). ‘People on Country: Vital Landscapes Indigenous Futures.’ (Federation Press: Annandale, NSW, Australia.)

Altman, J. C., and Whitehead, P. J. (2003). Caring for country and sustainable Indigenous development: opportunities, constraints and innovation. CAEPR Working Paper number 20/2003. (CAEPR, Australian National University: Canberra, ACT, Australia.) Available at https://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/research/publications/caring-country-and-sustainable-indigenous-development-opportunities [Verified 27 November 2020].

Altman, J. C., Linkhorn, C., and Clarke, J. (2005). Land rights and development reform in remote Australia. Discussion paper number 276/2005. Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research: Canberra, ACT, Australia. Available at https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/43041 [Verified 27 November 2020].

Altman, J. C., Buchanan, G. J., and Larson, L. (2007). The environmental significance of the Indigenous estate: natural resource management as economic development in remote Australia. (ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences: Canberra, ACT, Australia.) Available at https://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/research/publications/environmental-significance-indigenous-estate-natural-resource-management [Verified 27 November 2020].

Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (2000). Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. (ANZECC & ARMCANZ.) Available at https://www.waterquality.gov.au/anz-guidelines/resources/previous-guidelines/anzecc-armcanz-2000 [Verified 27 November 2020].

Australian Bureau of Meteorology (2018). Climate statistics for Australian locations. Summary statistics NGUKURR. (BOM.) Available at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_014609.shtml [Verified 27 November 2020].

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2016). 2016 Census QuickStats: Ngukurr. (ABS.) Available at https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/SSC70207 [Verified 27 November 2020].

Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (2012). ‘Guidelines for Ethical Research in Australian Indigenous Studies.’ (AIATSIS: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Barber, M., and Jackson, S. (2014). Autonomy and the intercultural: interpreting the history of Australian Aboriginal water management in the Roper River catchment, Northern Territory. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 20, 670–693.
Autonomy and the intercultural: interpreting the history of Australian Aboriginal water management in the Roper River catchment, Northern Territory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barbour, W., and Schlesinger, C. (2012). Who’s the boss? Post-colonialism, ecological research and conservation management on Australian Indigenous lands. Ecological Management & Restoration 13, 36–41.
Who’s the boss? Post-colonialism, ecological research and conservation management on Australian Indigenous lands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Berkes, F. (1999). ‘Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management.’ (Taylor and Francis: Philadelphia, PA, USA.)

Berkes, F. (2009). Indigenous ways of knowing and the study of environmental change. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 39, 151–156.
Indigenous ways of knowing and the study of environmental change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological Applications 10, 1251–1262.
Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bohensky, E., and Maru, Y. (2011). Indigenous knowledge, science, and resilience: what have we learned from a decade of international literature on ‘integration’? Ecology and Society 16, art6.
Indigenous knowledge, science, and resilience: what have we learned from a decade of international literature on ‘integration’?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Bohensky, E. L., Butler, J. R. A., and Davies, J. (2013). Integrating Indigenous ecological knowledge and science in natural resource management perspectives from Australia. Ecology and Society 18, art20.
Integrating Indigenous ecological knowledge and science in natural resource management perspectives from Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Borrini-Feyerabend, G., Pimbert, M., Farvar, M. T., Kotari, A., and Renard, Y. (2007). ‘Sharing Power: Learning-by-Doing in Co-management of Natural Resources Throughout the World.’ (Earthscan: London, UK.)

Braithwaite, R., Dudzinski, M., Ridpath, M., and Parker, B. (1984). The impact of water buffalo on the monsoon forest ecosystem Kakadu National Park. Australian Journal of Ecology 9, 309–322.
The impact of water buffalo on the monsoon forest ecosystem Kakadu National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brim Box, J., Guest, T., Barker, P., Jambrecina, M., Moran, S., and Kulitja, R. (2010). Camel usage and impacts at a permanent spring in central Australia: a case study. The Rangeland Journal 32, 55–62.
Camel usage and impacts at a permanent spring in central Australia: a case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brim Box, J., McBurnie, G., Strehlow, K., Guest, T., Campbell, M., Bubb, A., McConnell, K., Willy, S., Uluru, R., Kulitja, R., Bell, B., Burke, S., James, R., Kunoth, R., and Stockman, B. (2016). The impact of feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) on remote waterholes in central Australia. The Rangeland Journal 38, 191–200.
The impact of feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) on remote waterholes in central Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Capon, S. J., Lynch, A. J. J., Bond, N., Chessman, B. C., Davis, J., Davidson, N., Finlayson, M., Gell, P. A., Hohnberg, D., Humphrey, C., Kingsford, R. T., Nielsen, D., Thomson, J. R., Ward, K., and Nally, R. M. (2015). Regime shifts, thresholds and multiple stable states in freshwater ecosystems a critical appraisal of the evidence. The Science of the Total Environment 534, 122–130.
Regime shifts, thresholds and multiple stable states in freshwater ecosystems a critical appraisal of the evidence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25712747PubMed |

Cazzolla Gatti, R. (2016). Freshwater biodiversity: a review of local and global threats. The International Journal of Environmental Studies 73, 887–904.
Freshwater biodiversity: a review of local and global threats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Christie, M. (2006). Transdisciplinary research and Aboriginal knowledge. Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 35, 78–89.
Transdisciplinary research and Aboriginal knowledge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cooke, P. (2009). Buffalo and tin, baki and Jesus: the creation of a modern wilderness. In ‘Culture, Ecology, Economy of Fire Management in North Australian Savannas: Rekindling the Wurrk Tradition’. (Eds J. Russell-Smith, P. Whitehead, and P. Cooke.) pp. 69–84. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

CSIRO (2019). Proposed methods report for the Roper Catchment. A report from the CSIRO Roper River Water Resource Assessment to the Government of Australia. CSIRO, Australia.

Cullen-Unsworth, L., Butler, J., Hill, R., and Wallace, M. (2010). Cooperative research: an example from the wet tropics of Queensland. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences: Annual Review 5, 139.
Cooperative research: an example from the wet tropics of Queensland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Daniels, C., Nelson, E., Roy, J., and Dixon, P. (2012). Commitment to our country. In ‘People on Country, Vital Landscapes, Indigenous Futures’. (Eds J. Altman and S. Kerins.) pp. 174–189. (Federation Press: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

Davidson-Hunt, I. J., and O’Flaherty, R. M. (2007). Researchers, Indigenous peoples, and place-based learning communities. Society & Natural Resources 20, 291–305.
Researchers, Indigenous peoples, and place-based learning communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davis, M. (2006). Bridging the gap or crossing a bridge? Indigenous knowledge and the language of law and policy. In ‘Bridging Scales and Knowledge Systems: Concepts and Applications in Ecosystem Assessment’. (Eds W. V. Reid, F. Berkes, T. J. Wilbanks, and D. Capistrano.) pp. 145–164. (Island Press: Washington, DC, USA.)

Davis, J., and Brock, M. (2008). Detecting unacceptable change in the ecological character of Ramsar wetlands. Ecological Management & Restoration 9, 26–32.
Detecting unacceptable change in the ecological character of Ramsar wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Davis, J., O’Grady, A. P., Dale, A., Arthington, A. H., Gell, P. A., Driver, P. D., Bond, N., Casanova, M., Finlayson, M., Watts, R. J., Capon, S. J., Nagelkerken, I., Tingley, R., Fry, B., Page, T. J., and Specht, A. (2015). When trends intersect: the challenge of protecting freshwater ecosystems under multiple land use and hydrological intensification scenarios. The Science of the Total Environment 534, 65–78.
When trends intersect: the challenge of protecting freshwater ecosystems under multiple land use and hydrological intensification scenarios.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25864797PubMed |

Dobbs, R. J., Davies, C. L., Walker, M. L., Pettit, N. E., Pusey, B. J., Close, P. G., Akune, Y., Walsham, N., Smith, B., Wiggan, A., Cox, P., Ward, D. P., Tingle, F., Kennett, R., Jackson, M. V., and Davies, P. M. (2016). Collaborative research partnerships inform monitoring and management of aquatic ecosystems by Indigenous rangers. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 26, 711–725.
Collaborative research partnerships inform monitoring and management of aquatic ecosystems by Indigenous rangers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Doupé, R. G., Schaffer, J., Knott, M. J., and Dicky, P. W. (2009). A description of freshwater turtle habitat destruction by feral pigs in tropical north-eastern Australia. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 4, 331–339.

Doupé, R., Mitchell, J., Knott, M., Davis, A., and Lymbery, A. (2010). Efficacy of exclusion fencing to protect ephemeral floodplain lagoon habitats from feral pigs (Sus scrofa). Wetlands Ecology and Management 18, 69–78.
Efficacy of exclusion fencing to protect ephemeral floodplain lagoon habitats from feral pigs (Sus scrofa).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Eliot, I., Finlayson, C. M., and Waterman, P. (1999). Predicted climate change, sea-level rise and wetland management in the Australian wet-dry tropics. Wetlands Ecology and Management 7, 63–81.
Predicted climate change, sea-level rise and wetland management in the Australian wet-dry tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ens, E. (2009). Freshwater billabong monitoring and protection from feral animals. Report to the Yugul Mangi Land and Sea Management Corporation. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269396441_Freshwater_billabong_monitoring_and_protection_from_feral_animals [Verified 27 November 2020].

Ens, E. (2012). Conducting two-way ecological research. In ‘People on Country, Vital Landscapes, Indigenous Futures’. (Eds J. Altman and S. Kerins.) pp. 45–64. (Federation Press: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

Ens, E. J., Cooke, P., Nadjamerrek, R., Namundja, S., Garlngarr, V., and Yibarbuk, D. (2010). Combining Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal knowledge to assess and manage feral water buffalo impacts on perennial freshwater springs of the Aboriginal-owned Arnhem Plateau, Australia. Environmental Management 45, 751–758.
Combining Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal knowledge to assess and manage feral water buffalo impacts on perennial freshwater springs of the Aboriginal-owned Arnhem Plateau, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20390401PubMed |

Ens, E. J., Finlayson, M., Preuss, K., Jackson, S., and Holcombe, S. (2012a). Australian approaches for managing ‘Country’ using Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge. Ecological Management & Restoration 13, 100–107.
Australian approaches for managing ‘Country’ using Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ens, E. J., Towler, G. M., and Daniels, C. (2012b). Looking back to move forward: collaborative ecological monitoring in remote Arnhem Land. Ecological Management & Restoration 13, 26–35.
Looking back to move forward: collaborative ecological monitoring in remote Arnhem Land.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ens, E. J., Pert, P., Clarke, P. A., Budden, M., Clubb, L., Doran, B., Douras, C., Gaikwad, J., Gott, B., Leonard, S., Locke, J., Packer, J., Turpin, G., and Wason, S. (2015a). Indigenous biocultural knowledge in ecosystem science and management: review and insight from Australia. Biological Conservation 181, 133–149.
Indigenous biocultural knowledge in ecosystem science and management: review and insight from Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ens, E., Fisher, J., and Costello, O. (Eds) (2015b). Indigenous people and invasive species: perceptions, challenges, management and uses. IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management Community Report. Available at https://ipm.ifas.ufl.edu/pdfs/ens_et_al_2015_indigenous_people_and_invasive_species_iucn_cem_ecosystems_and_invasiv.pdf [Verified 27 November 2020].

Ens, E. J., Daniels, C., Nelson, E., Roy, J., and Dixon, P. (2016a). Creating multi-functional landscapes: Using exclusion fences to frame feral ungulate management preferences in remote Aboriginal-owned northern Australia. Biological Conservation 197, 235–246.
Creating multi-functional landscapes: Using exclusion fences to frame feral ungulate management preferences in remote Aboriginal-owned northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ens, E., Scott, M. L., Yugul Mangi Rangers Moritz, C., and Pirzl, R. (2016b). Putting Indigenous conservation policy into practice delivers biodiversity and cultural benefits. Biodiversity and Conservation 25, 2889–2906.
Putting Indigenous conservation policy into practice delivers biodiversity and cultural benefits.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ens, E. J., Bentley-Toon, S., Campion, F., Campion, S., Kelly, J., and Towler, G. (2017). Rapid appraisal links feral buffalo with kunkod (Melaleuca spp.) decline in freshwater billabongs of tropical northern Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 68, 1642–1642.
Rapid appraisal links feral buffalo with kunkod (Melaleuca spp.) decline in freshwater billabongs of tropical northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fabricius, C., Scholes, R., and Cundill, G. (2006). Mobilizing knowledge for integrated ecosystem assessments. In ‘Bridging Scales and Knowledge Systems: Concepts and Applications in Ecosystem Assessment’. (Eds W. V. Reid, F. Berkes, T. Wilbanks, and D. Capistrano.) pp. 165–182. (Island Press.)

Finlayson, C. M., and Rea, N. (1999). Reasons for the loss and degradation of Australian wetlands. Wetlands Ecology and Management 7, 1–11.
Reasons for the loss and degradation of Australian wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Finlayson, C. M., Bailey, B. J., Freeland, W. J., and Fleming, M. (1988). Wetlands of the Northern Territory. In ‘The Conservation of Australian Wetlands’. (Eds A. J. McComb and P. S. Lake.) pp. 103–116. (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

Finlayson, C. M., Yibarbuk, D., Thurtell, L., Storrs, M. J., and Cooke, P. (1999). Local community management of the Blyth/Liverpool wetlands, Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia. Supervising Scientist Report 137, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Finlayson, C. M., Bellio, M. G., and Lowry, J. B. (2005). A conceptual basis for the wise use of wetlands in northern Australia – linking information needs, integrated analyses, drivers of change and human well-being. Marine and Freshwater Research 56, 269–277.
A conceptual basis for the wise use of wetlands in northern Australia – linking information needs, integrated analyses, drivers of change and human well-being.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Finlayson, C. M., Davidson, N., Pritchard, D., Milton, G. R., and Mackay, H. (2011). The Ramsar Convention and ecosystem-based approaches to the wise use and sustainable development of wetlands. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 14, 176–198.

Finlayson, C., Davis, J., Gell, P., Kingsford, R., and Parton, K. (2013). The status of wetlands and the predicted effects of global climate change: the situation in Australia. Research Across Boundaries 75, 73–93.
The status of wetlands and the predicted effects of global climate change: the situation in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Finlayson, C. M., Capon, S. J., Rissik, D., Pittock, J., Fisk, G., Davidson, N. C., Bodmin, K. A., Papas, P., Robertson, H. A., Schallenberg, M., Saintilan, N., Edyvane, K., and Bino, G. (2017). Policy considerations for managing wetlands under a changing climate. Marine and Freshwater Research 68, 1803–1815.
Policy considerations for managing wetlands under a changing climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fogarty, B. (2012). Country as classroom. In ‘People on Country: Vital Landscapes Indigenous Futures’. (Eds J. Altman and S. Kerins.) pp. 82–93. (The Federation Press: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)

Fordham, D. A., Georges, A., and Brook, B. W. (2008). Indigenous harvest, exotic pig predation and local persistence of a long-lived vertebrate: managing a tropical freshwater turtle for sustainability and conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology 45, 52–62.
Indigenous harvest, exotic pig predation and local persistence of a long-lived vertebrate: managing a tropical freshwater turtle for sustainability and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Fraser, D. J., Coon, T., Prince, M. R., Dion, R., and Bernatchez, L. (2006). Integrating traditional and evolutionary knowledge in biodiversity conservation a population level case study. Ecology and Society 11, art4.
Integrating traditional and evolutionary knowledge in biodiversity conservation a population level case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Friend, G. R., and Cellier, K. M. (1990). Wetland herpetofauna of Kakadu National Park, Australia: seasonal richness trends, habitat preferences and the effects of feral ungulates. Journal of Tropical Ecology 6, 131–152.
Wetland herpetofauna of Kakadu National Park, Australia: seasonal richness trends, habitat preferences and the effects of feral ungulates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Friend, G. R., and Taylor, J. A. (1984). Ground surface features attributable to feral buffalo, Bubalus bubalis II. Their relationship to the abundance of small animal species. Wildlife Research 11, 311–323.
Ground surface features attributable to feral buffalo, Bubalus bubalis II. Their relationship to the abundance of small animal species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Garnett, S., and Sithole, B. (2007). ‘Sustainable Northern Landscapes and the Nexus with Indigenous Health: Healthy Country Healthy People.’ (Australian Government Department of Land and Water: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)

Gooderham, J., and Edward, T. (2002). ‘The Waterbug Book: A Guide to the Freshwater Macroinvertebrates of Temperate Australia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Grech, A., Parra, G. J., Beasley, I., Bradley, J., Johnson, S., Whiting, S., and Marsh, H. (2014). Local assessments of marine mammals in cross-cultural environments. Biodiversity and Conservation 23, 3319–3338.
Local assessments of marine mammals in cross-cultural environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hancock, G. R., Lowry, J., and Dever, C. (2017). Surface disturbance and erosion by pigs: a medium term assessment for the monsoonal tropics. Land Degradation & Development 28, 255–264.
Surface disturbance and erosion by pigs: a medium term assessment for the monsoonal tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hawking, J. H., and Smith, F. J. (1997). ‘Colour Guide to Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters.’ (Co-operative Research Centre for Freshwater Ecology: Albury, NSW, Australia.)

Hill, R., Grant, C., George, M., Robinson, C., Jackson, S., and Abel, N. (2012). A typology of Indigenous engagement in Australian environmental management: implications for knowledge integration and social-ecological system sustainability. Ecology and Society 17, art23.
A typology of Indigenous engagement in Australian environmental management: implications for knowledge integration and social-ecological system sustainability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Jackson, S., Finn, M., and Scheepers, K. (2014). The use of replacement cost method to assess and manage the impacts of water resource development on Australian indigenous customary economies. Journal of Environmental Management 135, 100–109.
The use of replacement cost method to assess and manage the impacts of water resource development on Australian indigenous customary economies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24530794PubMed |

Koster, R., Baccar, K., and Lemelin, R. H. (2012). Moving from research ON, to research WITH and FOR Indigenous communities: a critical reflection on community-based participatory research. The Canadian Geographer. Geographe Canadien 56, 195–210.
Moving from research ON, to research WITH and FOR Indigenous communities: a critical reflection on community-based participatory research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Leigh, C. (2013). Dry-season changes in macroinvertebrate assemblages of highly seasonal rivers: responses to low flow, no flow and antecedent hydrology. Hydrobiologia 703, 95–112.
Dry-season changes in macroinvertebrate assemblages of highly seasonal rivers: responses to low flow, no flow and antecedent hydrology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lloyd, J., and Cook, S. (1996). ‘AusRivas Australian River Assessment Scheme Sampling and Processing Manual.’ (Resource Management Branch, Natural Resources Division, Department of Land, Planning and Environment: Palmerston, NT, Australia.)

Maclean, K., and Cullen, L. (2009). Research methodologies for the co-production of knowledge for environmental management in Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 39, 205–208.
Research methodologies for the co-production of knowledge for environmental management in Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McBurnie, G., Davis, J., Thompson, R. M., Nano, C., and Brim Box, J. (2015). The impacts of an invasive herbivore (Camelus dromedaries) on arid zone freshwater pools: an experimental investigation of the effects of dung on macroinvertebrate colonisation. Journal of Arid Environments 113, 69–76.
The impacts of an invasive herbivore (Camelus dromedaries) on arid zone freshwater pools: an experimental investigation of the effects of dung on macroinvertebrate colonisation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McGregor, S., Lawson, V., Christophersen, P., Kennett, R., Boyden, J., Bayliss, P., Liedloff, A., McKaige, B., and Andersen, A. N. (2010). Indigenous wetland burning: conserving natural and cultural resources in Australia’s world heritage-listed Kakadu National Park. Human Ecology 38, 721–729.
Indigenous wetland burning: conserving natural and cultural resources in Australia’s world heritage-listed Kakadu National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

McNamara, K. E., and Westoby, R. (2016). Intergenerational sharing of Indigenous environmental knowledge in the Torres Strait. In ‘Geographies of Global Issues: Change and Threat’. (Eds N. Ansell, N. Klocker, and T. Skelton.) pp. 463–482. (Springer Singapore: Singapore.)

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). ‘Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Wetlands and Water: Synthesis Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report to the Ramsar Convention.’ (World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA.)

Moller, H., Berkes, F., O’Brian Lyver, P., and Kislalioglu, M. (2004). Combining science and traditional ecological knowledge: monitoring populations for co-management. Ecology and Society 9, art2.
Combining science and traditional ecological knowledge: monitoring populations for co-management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moller, H., O’Blyver, P., Bragg, C., Newman, J., Clucas, R., Fletcher, D., Kitson, J., McKechnie, S., Scott, D., and Rakiura Titi Islands Administering, B. (2009a). Guidelines for cross-cultural participatory action research partnerships: a case study of a customary seabird harvest in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 36, 211–241.
Guidelines for cross-cultural participatory action research partnerships: a case study of a customary seabird harvest in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moller, H., Charleton, K., Knight, B., and Lyver, P. (2009b). Traditional ecological knowledge and scientific inference of prey availability: harvests of sooty shearwater (Puffinus griseus) chicks by Rakiura Maori. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 36, 259–274.
Traditional ecological knowledge and scientific inference of prey availability: harvests of sooty shearwater (Puffinus griseus) chicks by Rakiura Maori.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Moritz, C., Ens, E. J., Potter, S., and Catullo, R. A. (2013). The Australian monsoonal tropics: an opportunity to protect unique biodiversity and secure benefits for Aboriginal communities. Pacific Conservation Biology 19, 343–355.
The Australian monsoonal tropics: an opportunity to protect unique biodiversity and secure benefits for Aboriginal communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Nadasdy, P. (1999). The politics of TEK: power and the ‘integration’ of knowledge. Arctic Anthropology 36, 1–18.

Pettit, N. E., Jardine, T. D., Hamilton, S. K., Sinnamon, V., Valdez, D., Davies, P. M., Douglas, M. M., and Bunn, S. E. (2012). Seasonal changes in water quality and macrophytes and the impact of cattle on tropical floodplain waterholes. Marine and Freshwater Research 63, 788–800.
Seasonal changes in water quality and macrophytes and the impact of cattle on tropical floodplain waterholes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pusey, B. (2011). ‘Aquatic Biodiversity in Northern Australia: Patterns, Threats and Future.’ (Charles Darwin University Press: Darwin, NT, Australia.)

Pyke, M. L., Toussaint, S., Close, P. G., Dobbs, R. J., Davey, I., George, K. J., Oades, D., Sibosado, D., McCarthy, P., Tigan, C., Angus, B., Riley, E., Cox, D., Cox, Z., Smith, B., Cox, P., Wiggan, A., and Clifton, J. (2018). Wetlands need people: a framework for understanding and promoting Australian indigenous wetland management. Ecology and Society 23, art43.
Wetlands need people: a framework for understanding and promoting Australian indigenous wetland management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Quinn, G. P., and Keough, M. J. (2002). ‘Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)

Reo, N. J., Whyte, K., Ranco, D., Brandt, J., Blackmer, E., and Elliott, B. (2017). Invasive species, Indigenous stewards, and vulnerability discourse. American Indian Quarterly 41, 201–223.
Invasive species, Indigenous stewards, and vulnerability discourse.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Robinson, C. J. (2005). Buffalo hunting and the feral frontier of Australia’s Northern Territory. Social & Cultural Geography 6, 885–901.
Buffalo hunting and the feral frontier of Australia’s Northern Territory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Robinson, C. J., and Wallington, T. J. (2012). Boundary work: engaging knowledge systems in co-management of feral animals on Indigenous lands. Ecology and Society 17, art16.
Boundary work: engaging knowledge systems in co-management of feral animals on Indigenous lands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Robinson, C. J., and Whitehead, P. (2003). Cross-cultural management of pest animal damage: a case study of feral buffalo control in Australia’s Kakadu National Park. Environmental Management 32, 445–458.
Cross-cultural management of pest animal damage: a case study of feral buffalo control in Australia’s Kakadu National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14986894PubMed |

Robinson, C. J., Smyth, D., and Whitehead, P. J. (2005). Bush tucker, bush pets, and bush threats: cooperative management of feral animals in Australia’s Kakadu National Park. Conservation Biology 19, 1385–1391.
Bush tucker, bush pets, and bush threats: cooperative management of feral animals in Australia’s Kakadu National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rose, D., Bell, D., and Crook, D. (2016). Restoring habitat and cultural practice in Australia’s oldest and largest traditional aquaculture system. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 26, 589–600.
Restoring habitat and cultural practice in Australia’s oldest and largest traditional aquaculture system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Russell, S., Ens, E. J., The Ngukurr Yangbala Rangers (2020). Connection as country: relational values of billabongs in Indigenous northern Australia. Ecosystem Services 45, 101169.
Connection as country: relational values of billabongs in Indigenous northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Russell-Smith, J., Whitehead, P., and Cooke, P. (2009). ‘Culture, Ecology and Economy of Fire Management in North Australian Savannas: Rekindling the Wurrk Tradition.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Saalfeld, K. (2014). Feral buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): distribution and abundance in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. (Wildlife Use and Pest Animals, Flora and Fauna Division, Department of Land Resource Management: Palmerston, N.T, Australia.) Available at https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/445199/feral-buffalo-arnhem-land-survey-report.pdf [Verified 2 December 2020]

Saco, P. M., Moreno-de las Heras, M., Keesstra, S., Baartman, J., Yetemen, O., and Rodríguez, J. F. (2018). Vegetation and soil degradation in drylands: non-linear feedbacks and early warning signals. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 5, 67–72.
Vegetation and soil degradation in drylands: non-linear feedbacks and early warning signals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Seiffert, M. W. (2008). ‘Refuge on the Roper.’ (Acorn Press: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)

Sithole, B., Hunter-Xenie, H., Williams, L., Saegenschnitter, J., Yibarbuk, D., Ryan, M., Campion, O., Yunupingu, B., Liddy, M., Watts, E., Daniels, C., Daniels, G., Christophersen, P., Cubillo, V., Phillips, E., Marika, W., Jackson, D., and Barbour, W. (2007). Aboriginal land and sea management in the Top End: a community driven evaluation. CSIRO, Darwin, NT, Australia.

Skeat, A. J., East, T. J., and Corbett, L. K. (1996). Impact of feral water buffalo. In ‘Landscape and Vegetation Ecology of the Kakadu Region, Northern Australia’. (Eds C. M. Finlayson and I. Von Oertzen.) pp. 155–177. (Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, Netherlands.)

Sloane, D., Ens, E., Wunungmurra, J., Falk, A., Marika, G., Maymuru, M., Towler, G., Preece, D., and Rangers, Y. (2019). Western and Indigenous knowledge converge to explain Melaleuca forest dieback on Aboriginal land in northern Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 70, 125–139.
Western and Indigenous knowledge converge to explain Melaleuca forest dieback on Aboriginal land in northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Smyth, D. (1994). Understanding country: the importance of land and sea in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies. Key Issue Paper number 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Stobo-Wilson, A., Stokeld, D., Mahney, T., Scroggie, M., Stevens, A., Rangers, B., Rangers, W., Murphy, B., Einoder, L., Hill, B., Gillespie, G., Davies, H., Fisher, A., and Woinarski, J. (2020). Bottom-up and top-down processes influence contemporary patterns of mammal species richness in Australia’s monsoonal tropics. Biological Conservation 247, 108638.
Bottom-up and top-down processes influence contemporary patterns of mammal species richness in Australia’s monsoonal tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Taylor, J., Bern, J., and Senior, K. A. (2000). Ngukurr at the millennium: a baseline profile for social impact planning in south-east Arnhem Land. (Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences, The Australian National University.) Available at https://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/research/publications/ngukurr-millennium-baseline-profile-social-impact-planning-south-east-arnhem [Verified 2 December 2020]

Tengö, M., Brondízio, E., Elmqvist, T., Malmer, P., and Spierenburg, M. (2014). Connecting diverse knowledge systems for enhanced ecosystem governance: the multiple evidence base approach. Journal of the Human Environment 43, 579–591.
Connecting diverse knowledge systems for enhanced ecosystem governance: the multiple evidence base approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Thaman, R., Lyver, P., Mpande, R., Perez, E., Cariño, J., and Takeuchi, K. (2013). ‘The Contribution of Indigenous and Local Knowledge Systems to IPBES: Building Synergies with Science.’ (UNESCO/United Nations University: Paris, France.)

Vaarzon-Morel, P., and Edwards, G. (2012). Incorporating Aboriginal people’s perceptions of introduced animals in resource management: insights from the feral camel project. Ecological Management & Restoration 13, 65–71.
Incorporating Aboriginal people’s perceptions of introduced animals in resource management: insights from the feral camel project.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ward, D. P., Hamilton, S. K., Jardine, T. D., Pettit, N. E., Tews, E. K., Olley, J. M., and Bunn, S. E. (2013). Assessing the seasonal dynamics of inundation, turbidity, and aquatic vegetation in the Australian wet–dry tropics using optical remote sensing. Ecohydrology 6, 312–323.
Assessing the seasonal dynamics of inundation, turbidity, and aquatic vegetation in the Australian wet–dry tropics using optical remote sensing.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilder, B., O’Meara, C., Monti, L., and Nabhan, G. (2016). The importance of Indigenous knowledge in curbing the loss of language and biodiversity. Bioscience 66, 499–509.
The importance of Indigenous knowledge in curbing the loss of language and biodiversity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wohling, M. (2009). The problem of scale in Indigenous knowledge: a perspective from Northern Australia. Ecology and Society 14, art1.
The problem of scale in Indigenous knowledge: a perspective from Northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Woodward, E., and Marrfurra McTaggart, P. (2016). Transforming cross-cultural water research through trust, participation and place. Geographical Research 54, 129–142.
Transforming cross-cultural water research through trust, participation and place.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |