Analysis of forest fire fatalities in Southern Europe: Spain, Portugal, Greece and Sardinia (Italy)
Domingo M. Molina-Terrén
A J , Gavriil Xanthopoulos B , Michalis Diakakis C , Luis Ribeiro D , David Caballero E , Giuseppe M. Delogu F , Domingos X. Viegas D , Carlos A. Silva G H and Adrián Cardil A I J
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Crops and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Avenida Rovira Roure 191, E-25198 Lleida, Spain.
B Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems, Hellenic Agricultural Organisation ‘Demeter’, TermaAlkmanos, GR-11528 Athens, Greece.
C Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GR-15784 Panepistimioupoli Zografou, Greece.
D Association for the Development of Industrial Aerodynamics (ADAI), Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Coimbra, Polo II, Pinhal de Marrocos, PT-3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal.
E MeteoGrid, Forest Fire Department, Gran Vía 22 dup, E-28013 Madrid, Spain.
F Independent Consultant, Via Ingurtosu 8, 09121Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy.
G Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, MD 20740, USA.
H NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Road, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA.
I Tecnosylva, Parque Tecnológico de León, E-24009, León, Spain.
J Corresponding author. Email: dmolinat@gmail.com; adriancardil@gmail.com
International Journal of Wildland Fire 28(2) 85-98 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF18004
Submitted: 12 January 2018 Accepted: 5 December 2018 Published: 23 January 2019
Journal compilation © IAWF 2019 Open Access CC BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Wildfire fatalities remain a significant problem in Mediterranean Europe. Although there is a strong inter-annual variability with regard to their number, repeated tragic accidents remind us of this grim occurrence, despite the increasing firefighting capacity aimed to improve human safety. In this paper, we present an analysis of the 865 fatalities caused by wildfires in the 1945–2016 period. Data originating from national databases were merged, contextual and weather factors related to the accidents that caused these deaths were documented and analysed to explore probable relationships with the number and type of fatalities. Results show a major rise of fatalities in late 1970s in the four regions of Greece, Sardinia (Italy), Spain and Portugal. Fatalities present a strong seasonality in summer months, as expected. Overall, Spain has the highest absolute numbers of fatalities; however, normalisations by population, and burned and forest area show that annual number of fatalities is comparatively smaller. Certain other factors showed correlation with mortality. Civilians were the most affected group in Greece (65%) and Sardinia (58%), but not in Spain and Portugal. Findings indicate that an in-depth revision of fire-management policies and practices is required, with emphasis on prevention planning in urban areas, and better training of the firefighting resources.
Additional keywords: Mediterranean Europe, wildfire accidents, wildfire fatalities, wildland–urban interface.
References
Beaver AK (2002) Learning to be at risk: are we victims of our own success? In ‘Proceedings of IV International Conference on Forest Fire Research 2002, Wildland Fire Safety Summit’, 18–23 November 2002, Coimbra, Portugal. (Ed. DX Viegas). (Millpress Science Publishers: Rotterdam, the Netherlands)Beck JA, Alexander ME, Harvey SD, Beaver AK (2001) Forecasting diurnal variation in fire intensity for use in wildland fire management applications. In ‘Proceedings of Fourth Symposium on Fire and Forest Meteorology’, 12–15 November 2001, Reno, NV, USA. Paper 2.1. (American Meteorological Society) Available at https://ams.confex.com/ams/4FIRE/webprogram/Paper25768.html [Verified 2 January 2019]
Blanchi R, Leonard J, Haynes K, Opie K, James M, de Oliveira FD (2014) Environmental circumstances surrounding bushfire fatalities in Australia 1900–2011. Environmental Science & Policy 37, 192–203.
| Environmental circumstances surrounding bushfire fatalities in Australia 1900–2011.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
BRP (2008) The Blue Ribbon Panel Report on Wildland/Urban Interface Fire. (International Code Council (ICC): Washington, USA). Available at https://inawf.memberclicks.net/assets/blueribbonreport-low.pdf [Verified 2 January 2019]
Butler CP (1974) The urban/wildland fire interface. In ‘Proceedings of Western States Section/ Combustion Institute Papers’, 6–7 May 1974, Spokane, WA, USA, vol. 74, no. 15, pp. 1–17 . (Washington State University: Pullman, WA, USA)
Butler BW, Bartlette RA, Bradshaw LS, Cohen JD, Andrews PL, Putnam T, Mangan R (1998) Fire behavior associated with the 1994 South Canyon fire on Storm King mountain, Colorado. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Research paper RMRS-RP-9. (Ogden, UT, USA)
Caballero D (2017) WUIWATCH White book on fire prevention and defence in the WUI. Directorate General of Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection ECHO, Project Final Technical Implementation Report, Deliverable 9.9. (Madrid, Spain)
Carballo-Leyenda B, Villa JG, López-Satué J, Rodríguez-Marroyo JA (2017) Impact of different personal protective clothing on wildland firefighters’ physiological strain. Frontiers in Physiology, 8, 618
| Impact of different personal protective clothing on wildland firefighters’ physiological strain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardil A, Molina DM (2015) Factors causing victims of wildland fires in Spain (1980–2010) Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 21, 67–80.
| Factors causing victims of wildland fires in Spain (1980–2010)Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardil A, Molina DM, Kobziar LN (2014) Extreme temperature days and their potential impacts on southern Europe. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 14, 3005–3014.
| Extreme temperature days and their potential impacts on southern Europe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardil A, Eastaugh CS, Molina DM (2015) Extreme temperature conditions and wildland fires in Spain. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 122, 219–228.
| Extreme temperature conditions and wildland fires in Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardil A, Merenciano D, Molina-Terrén D (2016) Wildland fire typologies and extreme temperatures in NE Spain. iForest – Biogeosciences and Forestry 9, e1–e6.
| Wildland fire typologies and extreme temperatures in NE Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardil A, Delogu GM, Molina-Terrén DM (2017) Fatalities in wildland fires from 1945 to 2015 in Sardinia (Italy). Cerne 23, 175–184.
| Fatalities in wildland fires from 1945 to 2015 in Sardinia (Italy).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
CDC (2006) Wildfire-related deaths, Texas March 12–20, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports 56, 757–760.
Cheney P, Gould J, McCaw L (2001) The dead-man zone – a neglected area of firefighter safety Australian Forestry 64, 45–50.
| The dead-man zone – a neglected area of firefighter safetyCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Desmond M (2011) Making firefighters deployable. Qualitative Sociology 34, 59–77.
| Making firefighters deployable.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Diakakis M, Mavroulis S, Deligiannakis G (2012) Floods in Greece, a statistical and spatial approach. Nat Hazards 62, 485–500.
Diakakis M, Xanthopoulos G, Gregos L (2016) Analysis of forest fire fatalities in Greece: 1977 – 2013. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 797–809.
| Analysis of forest fire fatalities in Greece: 1977 – 2013.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
European Union (2003) Regulation (EC) No 1059/2003 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003 on the establishment of a common classification of territorial units for statistics (NUTS). Available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32003R1059&from=EN [Verified 12 December 2018]
Flannigan MD, Krawchuk MA, De Groot WJ, Wotton BM, Gowman LM (2009) Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 483–507.
| Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gleason P (1991) LCES – a key to safety in the wildland fire environment. Fire Management Notes 54, 9
Haynes K, Handmer J, McAneney J, Tibbits A, Coates L (2010) Australian bushfire fatalities 1900–2008: exploring trends in relation to the ‘Prepare, stay and defend or leave early’ policy. Environmental Science & Policy 13, 185–194.
| Australian bushfire fatalities 1900–2008: exploring trends in relation to the ‘Prepare, stay and defend or leave early’ policy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones GM, Gutiérrez RJ, Tempel DJ, Whitmore SA, Berigan WJ, Peery MZ (2016) Megafires: an emerging threat to old-forest species. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14, 300–306.
| Megafires: an emerging threat to old-forest species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kales SN, Soteriades ES, Christophi CA, Christiani DC (2007) Emergency duties and deaths from heart disease in firefighters in the United States. The New England Journal of Medicine 356, 1207–1215.
| Emergency duties and deaths from heart disease in firefighters in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17377158PubMed |
Karter MJ Jr (2012) Patterns of Firefighter Fireground Injuries, 1/12 2 National Fire Protection Association. (Fire Analysis and Research Division: Quincy, MA USA) Available at http://www.nfpa.org/~/media/Files/Research/NFPA%20reports/Fire%20service%20statistics/ospatterns.pdf [Verified 19 December 2018]
Krusel N, Petris SN (1992) A study of civilian deaths in the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires, Victoria, Australia. Country Fire Authority, CFA Occasional paper number 1. (Melbourne, Vic., Australia) Avaliable at http://royalcommission.vic.gov.au/getdoc/adec5bc7-6c36-4c66-a8f4-17f2bf7f285e/WIT.3004.003.0201.PDF [Verified 19 December 2018]
Lahaye S, Sharples J, Matthews S, Heemstra S, Price O, Badlan R (2018a) How do weather and terrain contribute to firefighter entrapments in Australia? International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, 85–98.
| How do weather and terrain contribute to firefighter entrapments in Australia?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lahaye S, Curt T, Fréjaville T, Sharples J, Paradis L, Hély C (2018b) What are the drivers of dangerous fires in Mediterranean France? International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, 155–163.
| What are the drivers of dangerous fires in Mediterranean France?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lareau NP, Clements CB (2016) Environmental controls on pyrocumulus and pyrocumulonimbus initiation and development. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, 4005–4022.
| Environmental controls on pyrocumulus and pyrocumulonimbus initiation and development.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liang J, Calkin DE, Gebert KM, Venn TJ, Silverstein RP (2008) Factors influencing large wildland fire suppression expenditures. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 650–659.
| Factors influencing large wildland fire suppression expenditures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Llasat MC, Llasat-Botija M, Barnolas M, López L, Altava-Ortiz V (2009) An analysis of the evolution of hydrometeorological extremes in newspapers: the case of Catalonia, 1982–2006 Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9, 1201–1212.
| An analysis of the evolution of hydrometeorological extremes in newspapers: the case of Catalonia, 1982–2006Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lorber JA (2006) Fatigue: an impact on firefighters. Fort Lauderdale Fire-Rescue Department. Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. Available at https://nfa.usfa.fema.gov/pdf/efop/efo39906.pdf [Verified 7 January 2017]
Maditinos Z, Vassiliadis C (2011) Mega fires: can they be managed effectively? Disaster prevention and management International Journal 20, 41–52.
| Mega fires: can they be managed effectively? Disaster prevention and managementCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mangan R (2007) Wildland Firefighter fatalities in the United States: 1990–2006. National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Safety and Health Working Team, National Interagency Fire Center, NWCG PMS 841. (Boise, ID, USA)
Martin RE, Sapsis DB (1992) Fires as agents of biodiversity: pyrodiversity promotes biodiversity. In ‘Proceedings of the Symposium on Biodiversity of Northwestern California’, 28–30 October 1991, Santa Rosa, CA, USA. (Eds RR Harris, DC Erman, HM Kerner) pp. 150–157. (Wildland Resources Center, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California: Berkeley, CA, USA)
Miralles M, Kraus D, Molina DM, Loureiro C, Delogu G, Ribet N, Vilalta O (2010) Suppression fire use in learning organizations. In ‘Towards Integrated Fire Management – Outcomes of the European Project Fire Paradox’. European Forest Institute Research Report number 23, Project number FP6–018505, pp. 204–215. Available at http://www.efi.int/files/attachments/publications/efi_rr23.pdf [Verified 19 December 2018]
Molina DM, Castellnou M, García D, Salgueiro A (2010) Improving fire management success through fire behavior specialists. In ‘Towards Integrated Fire Management – Outcomes of the European Project Fire Paradox’. European Forest Institute Research Report number 23, Project number FP6–018505, pp. 105–119. Available at http://www.efi.int/files/attachments/publications/efi_rr23.pdf [Verified 18 December 2018]
Molina-Terrén DM, Cardil A (2016) Temperature determining larger wildland fires in NE Spain. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 125, 295–302.
| Temperature determining larger wildland fires in NE Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Moreira F, Viedma O, Arianoutsou M, Curt T, Koutsias N, Rigolot E, Barbati A, Corona P, Vaz P, Xanthopoulos G, Mouillot F, Bilgili E (2011) Landscape–wildfire interactions in southern Europe: implications for landscape management. Journal of Environmental Management 92, 2389–2402.
| Landscape–wildfire interactions in southern Europe: implications for landscape management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21741757PubMed |
NHS [National Health Service] (2010) Protecting Health and Reducing Harm from Extreme Heat and Heatwaves. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/216193/dh_127235.pdf [Verified 7 January 2017]
Prior TD, Paton D (2008) Understanding the context: the value of community engagement in bushfire risk communication and education. Observations following the East Coast Tasmania bushfires of December 2006. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies 2, 1–14.
Resco de Dios V, Molina-Terrén DM (2017) Fires: degree courses for fire professionals. Nature 551, 300
Ribeiro LM (2016). Os incêndios na interface urbano-florestal em Portugal: uma análise de diagnóstico. Dissertação para a obtenção do grau de Mestre em Dinâmicas sociais, riscos naturais e tecnológicos. Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra. University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal. Avaliable at https://estudogeral.sib.uc.pt/handle/10316/36976 [Verified 18 December 2018]
Rothermel RC (1993) Mann Gulch fire: a race that couldn’t be won. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, General Technical Report INT-299. (Ogden, UT, USA)
Silva Sande J, Rego F, Fernandes P, Rigolot E (2010) Improving Fire Management Success through Fire Behaviour Specialists. In ‘Towards integrated fire management – outcomes of the European Project Fire Paradox’. EFI Research Report number 23. European Commission, Fire Paradox Project number FP6–018505, p. 105–119. Available at http://www2.efi.int/files/attachments/publications/efi_rr23.pdf [Verified 18 December 2018]
Thorburn WR, Alexander ME (2001) Adopting an ‘A’ for ‘Anchor Points’ to improve wildland firefighter safety. In ‘Proceedings of the International Wildfire Safety Summit’, 6–8 November 2001, Missoula, MT, USA. (Eds BW Butler, D Mangan) pp. 1–16. (Missoula, MT, USA)
Vega-García C, Chuvieco E (2006) Applying local measures of spatial heterogeneity to Landsat-TM images for predicting wildfire occurrence in Mediterranean landscapes. Landscape Ecology 21, 595–605.
| Applying local measures of spatial heterogeneity to Landsat-TM images for predicting wildfire occurrence in Mediterranean landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Velez Munoz R (2007) Experiences in Spain of community based fire management. In ‘Book of Abstracts of the IV International Wildland Fire Conference’, 13–17 May 2007, Seville, Spain. p. 128. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente: Madrid, Spain) [Abstract]
Viegas DX (2004) A mathematical model for forest fire blow-up Combustion Science and Technology 177, 27–51.
| A mathematical model for forest fire blow-upCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Viegas DX (2009) Recent forest fire related accidents in Europe. European Commission, JRC Scientific and Technical Reports, JRC 56107, EUR 24121 EN. (Brussels)
Viegas D, Pita L, Ribeiro L, Palheiro P (2005) Eruptive fire behaviour in past fatal accidents. In ‘8th Annual Wildland Fire Safety Summit – Human Factors Work’, 26–28 April, 2005, Missoula, MT, USA. (Missoula, MT, USA)
Viegas DX, Rossa C, Caballero D, Pita LP, Palheiro PM (2006) Analysis of accidents in 2005 fires in Portugal and Spain. In ‘Proceedings of the V International Conference on Forest Fire Research’, 27–30 November 2006, Figueira da Foz, Portugal. (Ed. DX Viegas) (Millpress: Rotterdam, Netherlands)
Viegas D, Ribeiro L, Almeida M, Oliveira R, Viegas M, Raposo J, Reva V, Figueiredo A, Lopes S (2013) ‘Relatório sobre os Dois Grandes Incêndios Florestais e os Acidentes Mortais ocorridos em 2013.’ (Relatório solicitado pelo Ministério da Administração Interna. Coimbra: Centro de Estudos sobre Incêndios Florestais, ADAI/LAETA, Universidade de Coimbra)
Werth PA, Potter BE, Alexander ME, Cruz MG, Clements CB, Finney MA, Parsons RA (2016) Synthesis of knowledge of extreme fire behavior: volume 2 for fire behavior specialists, researchers, and meteorologists. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-891. (Portland, OR, USA)
Xanthopoulos G (2008) People and the Mass Media during the fire disaster days of 2007 in Greece. In ‘Proceedings of the International Bushfire Research Conference on Fire, Environment and Society’, September 1–3, 2008, Adelaide, Australia. Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre and the Australasian Fire Emergency Service Authorities Council (AFAC), pp. 494-506. (Melbourne, Vic., Australia)
Xanthopoulos G, Viegas DX, Caballero D (2009) The fatal fire entrapment of Artemida (Greece) 2007. In ‘Recent Forest Fire Related Accidents in Europe’. (Ed. DX Viegas) pp. 65–75 (JRC Scientific and Technical Reports: Brussels, Belgium)
Xanthopoulos G, Bushey C, Arnol C, Caballero D (2012) Characteristics of wildland–urban interface areas in Mediterranean Europe, North America and Australia and differences between them. In ‘Proceedings of the 1st International Conference in Safety and Crisis Management in the Construction, Tourism and SME Sectors (1st CoSaCM)’, 24–28 June 2011, Nicosia, Cyprus. (Eds G Boustras, N. Boukas) pp. 702–734, (Brown Walker Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
