Evaluating the Drought Code for lowland taiga of Interior Alaska using eddy covariance measurements
Eric A. Miller
A * , Hiroki Iwata B , Masahito Ueyama C , Yoshinobu Harazono D , Hideki Kobayashi E , Hiroki Ikawa F , Robert Busey G , Go Iwahana G and Eugénie S. Euskirchen H
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Fire Service, Fort Wainwright, AK, USA.
B Department of Environmental Science, Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan.
C Graduate School of Agriculture, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan.
D Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Osaka, Japan.
E Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 3173-25 Showamachi, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0001, Japan.
F Hokkaido Agricultural Research Center, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Hitsujigaoka, Toyohira Ward, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 062-8555, Japan.
G International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, USA.
H Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, USA.
* Correspondence to: eamiller@blm.gov
International Journal of Wildland Fire 32(8) 1226-1243 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF22165
Submitted: 20 July 2022 Accepted: 19 May 2023 Published: 30 June 2023
© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of IAWF. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Abstract
Background: The Drought Code (DC) of the Canadian Fire Weather Index System (CFWIS) has been intuitively regarded by fire managers in Alaska, USA, as poorly representing the moisture content in the forest floor in lowland taiga forests on permafrost soils.
Aims: The aim of this study was to evaluate the DC using its own framework of water balance as cumulative additions of daily precipitation and substractions of actual evaporation.
Methods: We used eddy covariance measurements (EC) from three flux towers in Interior Alaska as a benchmark of natural evaporation.
Key results: The DC water balance model overpredicted drought for all 14 site-years that we analysed. Errors in water balance cumulated to 109 mm by the end of the season, which was 54% of the soil water storage capacity of the DC model. Median daily water balance was 6.3 times lower than that measured by EC.
Conclusions: About half the error in the model was due to correction of precipitation for canopy effects. The other half was due to dependence of the actual evaporation rate on the proportional ‘fullness’ of soil water storage in the DC model.
Implications: Fire danger situational awareness is improved by ignoring the DC in the CFWIS for boreal forests occurring on permafrost.
Keywords: Canadian Fire Weather Index System, duff moisture content, energy flux, evaporation, fire danger rating, permafrost, Picia mariana, wildfire.
References
Arain MA, Black TA, Barr AG, Griffis TJ, Morgenstern K, Nesic Z (2003) Year-round observations of the energy and water vapour fluxes above a boreal black spruce forest. Hydrological Processes 17, 3581–3600.| Year-round observations of the energy and water vapour fluxes above a boreal black spruce forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Aubinet M, Vesala T, Papale D (Eds) (2012) ‘Eddy Covariance.’ (Springer Science & Business Media)
| Crossref |
Baldocchi DD, Vogel CA, Hall B (1997) Seasonal variation of energy and water vapor exchange rates above and below a boreal jack pine forest canopy. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 102, 28939–28951.
| Seasonal variation of energy and water vapor exchange rates above and below a boreal jack pine forest canopy.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Baldocchi D, Kelliher FM, Black TA, Jarvis P (2000) Climate and vegetation controls on boreal zone energy exchange. Global Change Biology 6, 69–83.
| Climate and vegetation controls on boreal zone energy exchange.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barr AG, Betts AK, Black TA, McCaughey JH, Smith CD (2001) Intercomparison of BOREAS northern and southern study area surface fluxes in 1994. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 106, 33543–33550.
| Intercomparison of BOREAS northern and southern study area surface fluxes in 1994.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Betts AK, Ball JH, McCaughey JH (2001) Near-surface climate in the boreal forest. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 106, 33529–33541.
| Near-surface climate in the boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bhatt US, Lader RT, Walsh JE, Bieniek PA, Thoman R, Berman M, Borries-Strigle C, Bulock K, Chriest J, Hahn M, Hendricks AS, Jandt R, Little J, McEvoy D, Moore C, Rupp TS, Schmidt J, Stevens E, Strader H, Waigl C, White J, York A, Ziel R (2021) Emerging Anthropogenic Influences on the Southcentral Alaska Temperature and Precipitation Extremes and Related Fires in 2019. Land 10, 82
| Emerging Anthropogenic Influences on the Southcentral Alaska Temperature and Precipitation Extremes and Related Fires in 2019.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Black PE (2007) Revisiting the Thornthwaite and Mather Water Balance. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43, 1604–1605.
| Revisiting the Thornthwaite and Mather Water Balance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blok D, Heijmans MMPD, Schaepman-Strub G, van Ruijven J, Parmentier FJW, Maximov TC, Berendse F (2011) The Cooling Capacity of Mosses: Controls on Water and Energy Fluxes in a Siberian Tundra Site. Ecosystems 14, 1055–1065.
| The Cooling Capacity of Mosses: Controls on Water and Energy Fluxes in a Siberian Tundra Site.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bond-Lamberty B, Gower ST, Amiro B, Ewers BE (2011) Measurement and modelling of bryophyte evaporation in a boreal forest chronosequence. Ecohydrology 4, 26–35.
| Measurement and modelling of bryophyte evaporation in a boreal forest chronosequence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bouchet RJ (1962) Évapotranspiration potentielle et évaporation sous abri. In ‘Biometeorology’. (Ed. SW Tromp) pp. 540–545. (Pergamon)
| Crossref |
Brutsaert W (2015) A generalized complementary principle with physical constraints for land-surface evaporation. Water Resources Research 51, 8087–8093.
| A generalized complementary principle with physical constraints for land-surface evaporation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brutsaert W, Stricker H (1979) An advection-aridity approach to estimate actual regional evapotranspiration. Water Resources Research 15, 443–450.
| An advection-aridity approach to estimate actual regional evapotranspiration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brutsaert W, Li W, Takahashi A, Hiyama T, Zhang L, Liu W (2017) Nonlinear advection-aridity method for landscape evaporation and its application during the growing season in the southern Loess Plateau of the Yellow River basin. Water Resources Research 53, 270–282.
| Nonlinear advection-aridity method for landscape evaporation and its application during the growing season in the southern Loess Plateau of the Yellow River basin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Butteri M (2005) A statistical analysis of the relationship between over-winter snowpack and large fire growth in Interior Alaska. Unpublished report. 34 pp. (Washington Institute Technical Fire Management Program: Duvall, WA, USA) Available at https://www.frames.gov/catalog/5578
Byram GM (1959) Chapter 3. Combustion of forest fuels. In ‘Forest fire: control and use’. (Ed. KP Davis) pp. 61–89. (McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA)
CFSFDG (2021) An overview of the next generation of the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System. Information Report GLC-X-26. (Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Great Lakes Forestry Centre: Sault Ste. Marie, ON, Canada) Available at https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/download-pdf/40474
Chapin FS, Mcguire AD, Randerson J, Pielke R, Baldocchi D, Hobbie SE, Roulet N, Eugster W, Kasischke E, Rastetter EB, Zimov SA, Running SW (2000) Arctic and boreal ecosystems of western North America as components of the climate system. Global Change Biology 6, 211–223.
| Arctic and boreal ecosystems of western North America as components of the climate system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Chavardès RD, Daniels LD, Eskelson BNI, Gedalof Z (2020) Using Complementary Drought Proxies Improves Interpretations of Fire Histories in Montane Forests. Tree-Ring Research 76, 74–88.
| Using Complementary Drought Proxies Improves Interpretations of Fire Histories in Montane Forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cole F, Alexander ME (1995) Canadian fire danger rating system proves valuable tool in Alaska. Fireline 8, 2–3.
Cole FV, Alexander ME (2001) Rating fire danger in Alaska ecosystems: CFFDRS provides an invaluable guide to systematically evaluating burning conditions. Fireline 12, 2–3.
Coogan SCP, Daniels LD, Boychuk D, Burton PJ, Flannigan MD, Gauthier S, Kafka V, Park JS, Wotton BM (2021) Fifty years of wildland fire science in Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 51, 283–302.
| Fifty years of wildland fire science in Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crago R, Brutsaert W (1996) Daytime evaporation and the self-preservation of the evaporative fraction and the Bowen ratio. Journal of Hydrology 178, 241–255.
| Daytime evaporation and the self-preservation of the evaporative fraction and the Bowen ratio.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Groot WJ, Field RD, Brady MA, Roswintiarti O, Mohamad M (2007) Development of the Indonesian and Malaysian Fire Danger Rating Systems. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 12, 165–180.
| Development of the Indonesian and Malaysian Fire Danger Rating Systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Groot WJ, Pritchard JM, Lynham TJ (2009) Forest floor fuel consumption and carbon emissions in Canadian boreal forest fires. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39, 367–382.
| Forest floor fuel consumption and carbon emissions in Canadian boreal forest fires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Groot WJ, Wotton BM, Flannigan MD (2015) Chapter 11 - Wildland Fire Danger Rating and Early Warning Systems. In ‘Wildfire Hazards, Risks and Disasters’. (Eds JF Shroder, D Paton) pp. 207–228. (Elsevier: Oxford, UK)
| Crossref |
Dimitrakopoulos AP, Bemmerzouk AM, Mitsopoulos ID (2011) Evaluation of the Canadian Fire Weather Index System in an eastern Mediterranean environment. Meteorological Applications 18, 83–93.
| Evaluation of the Canadian Fire Weather Index System in an eastern Mediterranean environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dingman SL (2015) ‘Physical Hydrology.’ (Waveland Press)
Dowdy AJ, Mills GA, Finkele K, de Groot W (2009) Australian fire weather as represented by the McArthur Forest Fire Danger Index and the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index. Technical Report No. 10. (Center for Australian Weather and Climate Research: Melbourne, Australia)
Eaton AK, Rouse WR, Lafleur PM, Marsh P, Blanken PD (2001) Surface energy balance of the Western and Central Canadian Subarctic: Variations in the energy balance among five major terrain types. Journal of Climate 14, 3692–3703.
| Surface energy balance of the Western and Central Canadian Subarctic: Variations in the energy balance among five major terrain types.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Eugster W, Rouse WR, Pielke Sr RA, Mcfadden JP, Baldocchi DD, Kittel TGF, Chapin III FS, Liston GE, Vidale PL, Vaganov E, Chambers S (2000) Land–atmosphere energy exchange in Arctic tundra and boreal forest: available data and feedbacks to climate. Global Change Biology 6, 84–115.
| Land–atmosphere energy exchange in Arctic tundra and boreal forest: available data and feedbacks to climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fernandes (2019) Variation in the Canadian Fire Weather Index Thresholds for Increasingly Larger Fires in Portugal. Forests 10, 838
| Variation in the Canadian Fire Weather Index Thresholds for Increasingly Larger Fires in Portugal.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Field RD, Wang Y, Roswintiarti O, Guswanto (2004) A drought-based predictor of recent haze events in western Indonesia. Atmospheric Environment 38, 1869–1878.
| A drought-based predictor of recent haze events in western Indonesia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fischer R, Walsh JE, Euskirchen ES, Bieniek PA (2018) Regional Climate Model Simulation of Surface Moisture Flux Variations in Northern Terrestrial Regions. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences 8, 29–54.
| Regional Climate Model Simulation of Surface Moisture Flux Variations in Northern Terrestrial Regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Foote MJ (1983) Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Research Paper PNW-RP-307. (U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: Portland, OR, USA) Available at https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/25349
Furguson SA, Ruthford J, Rorig M, Sandberg DV (2003) Measuring moss moisture dynamics to predict fire severity. In ‘The First National Congress on Fire Ecology, Prevention, and Management’, Tallahassee, FL, USA. (Eds KEM Galley, RC Klinger, NG Sugihara) pp. 211–217. (Tall Timbers Research Station: Tallahassee, FL, USA)
Gallant AL, Binnian EF, Omernik JM, Shasby MB (1995) Ecoregions of Alaska. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1567
Girardin M-P, Tardif J, Flannigan MD, Wotton BM, Bergeron Y (2004) Trends and periodicities in the Canadian Drought Code and their relationships with atmospheric circulation for the southern Canadian boreal forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 103–119.
| Trends and periodicities in the Canadian Drought Code and their relationships with atmospheric circulation for the southern Canadian boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goetz JD, Price JS (2016) Ecohydrological controls on water distribution and productivity of moss communities in western boreal peatlands, Canada. Ecohydrology 9, 138–152.
| Ecohydrological controls on water distribution and productivity of moss communities in western boreal peatlands, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Grelle A, Lindroth A, Mölder M (1999) Seasonal variation of boreal forest surface conductance and evaporation. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 98–99, 563–578.
| Seasonal variation of boreal forest surface conductance and evaporation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Han S, Tian F (2020) A review of the complementary principle of evaporation: from the original linear relationship to generalized nonlinear functions. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 24, 2269–2285.
| A review of the complementary principle of evaporation: from the original linear relationship to generalized nonlinear functions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heijmans MMPD, Arp WJ, Chapin FS (2004) Controls on moss evaporation in a boreal black spruce forest. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18, GB2004
| Controls on moss evaporation in a boreal black spruce forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Heikinhemo M, Venalainen A, Tourula T (1998) A soil moisture index for the assessment of forest fire risk in the boreal zone. In ‘Proceedings of the International Symposium on Applied Agrometeorology and Agroclimatology’, Volos, Greece. (Ed. N Dalezios) pp. 549–555. (European Commission: Volos, Greece)
Hinzman LD, Kane DL, Gieck RE, Everett KR (1991) Hydrologic and thermal properties of the active layer in the Alaskan Arctic. Cold Regions Science and Technology 19, 95–110.
| Hydrologic and thermal properties of the active layer in the Alaskan Arctic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hinzman L, Ishikawa N, Yoshikawa K, Bolton W, Petrone K (2002) Hydrologic Studies in Caribou-Poker Creeks Research Watershed in Support of Long Term Ecological Research. Eurasian Journal of Forest Research 5, 67–71.
Hinzman LD, Bolton WR, Petrone KC, Jones JB, Adams PC (2006a) Watershed hydrology and chemistry in the Alaskan boreal forest: the central role of permafrost. In ‘Alaska’s Changing Boreal Forest’. (Eds FS Chapin, MW Oswood, K van Cleve, LA Viereck, DL Verbyla) pp. 269–284. (Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA)
Hinzman LD, Viereck LA, Adams PC, Romanovsky VE, Yoshikawa K (2006b) Climate and permafrost dynamics of the Alaskan boreal forest. In ‘Alaska’s Changing Boreal Forest’. (Eds FS Chapin, MW Oswood, K van Cleve, LA Viereck, DL Verbyla) pp. 39–61. (Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA)
Hinzman LD, Deal CJ, McGuire AD, Mernild SH, Polyakov IV, Walsh JE (2013) Trajectory of the Arctic as an integrated system. Ecological Applications 23, 1837–1868.
| Trajectory of the Arctic as an integrated system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hobbins M, Huntington J (2016) Evapotranspiration and evaporative demand. In ‘Handbook of Applied Hydrology’ (Ed. VP Singh). pp. 42.1–42.18. (McGraw-Hill Publishing)
Humphreys ER, Black TA, Ethier GJ, Drewitt GB, Spittlehouse DL, Jork E-M, Nesic Z, Livingston NJ (2003) Annual and seasonal variability of sensible and latent heat fluxes above a coastal Douglas-fir forest, British Columbia, Canada. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 115, 109–125.
| Annual and seasonal variability of sensible and latent heat fluxes above a coastal Douglas-fir forest, British Columbia, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Iwata H, Harazono Y, Ueyama M (2012) The role of permafrost in water exchange of a black spruce forest in Interior Alaska. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 161, 107–115.
| The role of permafrost in water exchange of a black spruce forest in Interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jandt R, Allen J, Horschel E (2005) Forest floor moisture content and fire danger indices in Alaska. Technical Report 54. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management Alaska)
Jarvis PG, Massheder JM, Hale SE, Moncrieff JB, Rayment M, Scott SL (1997) Seasonal variation of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy exchanges of a boreal black spruce forest. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 102, 28953–28966.
| Seasonal variation of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy exchanges of a boreal black spruce forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Johnson EA, Keith DM, Martin YE (2013) Comparing measured duff moisture with a water budget model and the duff and drought codes of the Canadian Fire Weather Index. Forest Science 59, 78–92.
| Comparing measured duff moisture with a water budget model and the duff and drought codes of the Canadian Fire Weather Index.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jones JA, Creed IF, Hatcher KL, Warren RJ, Adams MB, Benson MH, Boose E, Brown WA, Campbell JL, Covich A, Clow DW, Dahm CN, Elder K, Ford CR, Grimm NB, Henshaw DL, Larson KL, Miles ES, Miles KM, Sebestyen SD, Spargo AT, Stone AB, Vose JM, Williams MW (2012) Ecosystem processes and human influences regulate streamflow response to climate change at Long-Term Ecological Research Sites. BioScience 62, 390–404.
| Ecosystem processes and human influences regulate streamflow response to climate change at Long-Term Ecological Research Sites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kahler DM, Brutsaert W (2006) Complementary relationship between daily evaporation in the environment and pan evaporation. Water Resources Research 42, W05413
| Complementary relationship between daily evaporation in the environment and pan evaporation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kasurinen V, Alfredsen K, Kolari P, Mammarella I, Alekseychik P, Rinne J, Vesala T, Bernier P, Boike J, Langer M, Belelli Marchesini L, van Huissteden K, Dolman H, Sachs T, Ohta T, Varlagin A, Rocha A, Arain A, Oechel W, Lund M, Grelle A, Lindroth A, Black A, Aurela M, Laurila T, Lohila A, Berninger F (2014) Latent heat exchange in the boreal and arctic biomes. Global Change Biology 20, 3439–3456.
| Latent heat exchange in the boreal and arctic biomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keetch JJ, Byram GM (1968) A drought index for forest fire control. Research Paper SE-38. (U.S. Forest Service, Southeastern Forest and Range Experiment Station: Asheville, NC, USA)
Kljun N, Black TA, Griffis TJ, Barr AG, Gaumont-Guay D, Morgenstern K, McCaughey JH, Nesic Z (2006) Response of net ecosystem productivity of three boreal forest stands to drought. Ecosystems 9, 1128–1144.
| Response of net ecosystem productivity of three boreal forest stands to drought.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Komatsu H (2005) Forest categorization according to dry-canopy evaporation rates in the growing season: comparison of the Priestley–Taylor coefficient values from various observation sites. Hydrological Processes 19, 3873–3896.
| Forest categorization according to dry-canopy evaporation rates in the growing season: comparison of the Priestley–Taylor coefficient values from various observation sites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krueger ES, Ochsner TE, Engle DM, Carlson JD, Twidwell D, Fuhlendorf SD (2015) Soil moisture affects growing-season wildfire size in the Southern Great Plains. Soil Science Society of America Journal 79, 1567–1576.
| Soil moisture affects growing-season wildfire size in the Southern Great Plains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krueger ES, Ochsner TE, Carlson JD, Engle DM, Twidwell D, Fuhlendorf SD (2016) Concurrent and antecedent soil moisture relate positively or negatively to probability of large wildfires depending on season. International Journal of Wildland Fire 25, 657–668.
| Concurrent and antecedent soil moisture relate positively or negatively to probability of large wildfires depending on season.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Krueger ES, Ochsner TE, Quiring SM, Engle DM, Carlson JD, Twidwell D, Fuhlendorf SD (2017) Measured Soil Moisture is a Better Predictor of Large Growing-Season Wildfires than the Keetch–Byram Drought Index. Soil Science Society of America Journal 81, 490–502.
| Measured Soil Moisture is a Better Predictor of Large Growing-Season Wildfires than the Keetch–Byram Drought Index.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lafleur PM (1992) Energy balance and evapotranspiration from a subarctic forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 58, 163–175.
| Energy balance and evapotranspiration from a subarctic forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lestienne M, Hély C, Curt T, Jouffroy-Bapicot I, Vannière B (2020) Combining the monthly Drought Code and paleoecological data to assess Holocene climate impact on Mediterranean fire regime. Fire 3, 8
| Combining the monthly Drought Code and paleoecological data to assess Holocene climate impact on Mediterranean fire regime.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Loboda TV, Hall JV, Baer A (2021) ABoVE: Wildfire Date of Burning within Fire Scars across Alaska and Canada, 2001-2019.
| Crossref |
Loranty MM, Abbott BW, Blok D, Douglas TA, Epstein HE, Forbes BC, Jones BM, Kholodov AL, Kropp H, Malhotra A, Mamet SD, Myers-Smith IH, Natali SM, O’Donnell JA, Phoenix GK, Rocha AV, Sonnentag O, Tape KD, Walker DA (2018) Reviews and syntheses: Changing ecosystem influences on soil thermal regimes in northern high-latitude permafrost regions. Biogeosciences 15, 5287–5313.
| Reviews and syntheses: Changing ecosystem influences on soil thermal regimes in northern high-latitude permafrost regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Maes WH, Gentine P, Verhoest NEC, Miralles DG (2019) Potential evaporation at eddy-covariance sites across the globe. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 23, 925–948.
| Potential evaporation at eddy-covariance sites across the globe.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mann DH, Peteet DM, Reanier RE, Kunz ML (2002) Responses of an arctic landscape to Lateglacial and early Holocene climatic changes: the importance of moisture. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 997–1021.
| Responses of an arctic landscape to Lateglacial and early Holocene climatic changes: the importance of moisture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Matsumoto K, Ohta T, Nakai T, Kuwada T, Daikoku K, Iida S, Yabuki H, Kononov AV, van der Molen MK, Kodama Y, Maximov TC, Dolman AJ, Hattori S (2008) Energy consumption and evapotranspiration at several boreal and temperate forests in the Far East. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 148, 1978–1989.
| Energy consumption and evapotranspiration at several boreal and temperate forests in the Far East.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McMahon TA, Peel MC, Lowe L, Srikanthan R, McVicar TR (2013) Estimating actual, potential, reference crop and pan evaporation using standard meteorological data: a pragmatic synthesis. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 17, 1331–1363.
| Estimating actual, potential, reference crop and pan evaporation using standard meteorological data: a pragmatic synthesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Merrill DF, Alexander ME (1987) ‘Glossary of forest fire management terms’. Pub. NRCC No. 26516. (Canadian Committee on Forest Fire Management, National Research Council of Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada)
Miller EA (2020) A Conceptual Interpretation of the Drought Code of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System. Fire 3, 23
| A Conceptual Interpretation of the Drought Code of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miller EA, Wilmore B (2020) Evaluating the Drought Code Using In Situ Drying Timelags of Feathermoss Duff in Interior Alaska. Fire 3, 25
| Evaluating the Drought Code Using In Situ Drying Timelags of Feathermoss Duff in Interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nakai T, Kim Y, Busey RC, Suzuki R, Nagai S, Kobayashi H, Park H, Sugiura K, Ito A (2013) Characteristics of evapotranspiration from a permafrost black spruce forest in interior Alaska. Polar Science 7, 136–148.
| Characteristics of evapotranspiration from a permafrost black spruce forest in interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
NCEI (2021) ‘U.S. Climate Normals.’ (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Environmental Information) Available at https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/land-based-station/us-climate-normals
Newman JE, Branton CI (1972) Annual Water Balance and Agricultural Development in Alaska. Ecology 53, 513–519.
| Annual Water Balance and Agricultural Development in Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
O’Donnell JA, Romanovsky VE, Harden JW, McGuire AD (2009) The Effect of Moisture Content on the Thermal Conductivity of Moss and Organic Soil Horizons From Black Spruce Ecosystems in Interior Alaska. Soil Science 174, 646–651.
| The Effect of Moisture Content on the Thermal Conductivity of Moss and Organic Soil Horizons From Black Spruce Ecosystems in Interior Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Parks SA (2014) Mapping day-of-burning with coarse-resolution satellite fire-detection data. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, 215–223.
| Mapping day-of-burning with coarse-resolution satellite fire-detection data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pastorello G, Trotta C, Canfora E, Chu H, Christianson D, Cheah Y-W, Poindexter C, Chen J, Elbashandy A, Humphrey M, Isaac P, Polidori D, Reichstein M, Ribeca A, van Ingen C, Vuichard N, Zhang L, Amiro B, Ammann C, Arain MA, Ardö J, Arkebauer T, Arndt SK, Arriga N, Aubinet M, Aurela M, Baldocchi D, Barr A, Beamesderfer E, Marchesini LB, Bergeron O, Beringer J, Bernhofer C, Berveiller D, Billesbach D, Black TA, Blanken PD, Bohrer G, Boike J, Bolstad PV, Bonal D, Bonnefond JM, Bowling DR, Bracho R, Brodeur J, Brümmer C, Buchmann N, Burban B, Burns SP, Buysse P, Cale P, Cavagna M, Cellier P, Chen S, Chini I, Christensen TR, Cleverly J, Collalti A, Consalvo C, Cook BD, Cook D, Coursolle C, Cremonese E, Curtis PS, D’Andrea E, da Rocha H, Dai X, Davis KJ, Cinti BD, Grandcourt A, Ligne AD, De Oliveira RC, Delpierre N, Desai AR, Di Bella CM, Tommasi P, Dolman H, Domingo F, Dong G, Dore S, Duce P, Dufrêne E, Dunn A, Dušek J, Eamus D, Eichelmann U, ElKhidir HAM, Eugster W, Ewenz CM, Ewers B, Famulari D, Fares S, Feigenwinter I, Feitz A, Fensholt R, Filippa G, Fischer M, Frank J, Galvagno M, Gharun M, Gianelle D, Gielen B, Gioli B, Gitelson A, Goded I, Goeckede M, Goldstein AH, Gough CM, Goulden ML, Graf A, Griebel A, Gruening C, Grünwald T, Hammerle A, Han S, Han X, Hansen BU, Hanson C, Hatakka J, He Y, Hehn M, Heinesch B, Hinko-Najera N, Hörtnagl L, Hutley L, Ibrom A, Ikawa H, Jackowicz-Korczynski M, Janouš D, Jans W, Jassal R, Jiang S, Kato T, Khomik M, Klatt J, Knohl A, Knox S, Kobayashi H, Koerber G, Kolle O, Kosugi Y, Kotani A, Kowalski A, Kruijt B, Kurbatova J, Kutsch WL, Kwon H, Launiainen S, Laurila T, Leuning R, Li Y, Liddell M, Limousin JM, Lion M, Liska AJ, Lohila A, López-Ballesteros A, López-Blanco E, Loubet B, Loustau D, Lucas-Moffat A, Lüers J, Ma S, Macfarlane C, Magliulo V, Maier R, Mammarella I, Manca G, Marcolla B, Margolis HA, Marras S, Massman W, Mastepanov M, Matamala R, Matthes JH, Mazzenga F, McCaughey H, McHugh I, McMillan AMS, Merbold L, Meyer W, Meyers T, Miller SD, Minerbi S, Moderow U, Monson RK, Montagnani L, Moore CE, Moors E, Moreaux V, Moureaux C, Munger JW, Nakai T, Neirynck J, Nesic Z, Nicolini G, Noormets A, Northwood M, Nosetto M, Nouvellon Y, Novick K, Oechel W, Olesen JE, Ourcival JM, Papuga SA, Parmentier FJ, Paul-Limoges E, Pavelka M, Peichl M, Pendall E, Phillips RP, Pilegaard K, Pirk N, Posse G, Powell T, Prasse H, Prober SM, Rambal S, Rannik Ü, Raz-Yaseef N, Rebmann C, Reed D, Dios VR, Restrepo-Coupe N, Reverter BR, Roland M, Sabbatini S, Sachs T, Saleska SR, Sánchez-Cañete EP, Sanchez-Mejia ZM, Schmid HP, Schmidt M, Schneider K, Schrader F, Schroder I, Scott RL, Sedlák P, Serrano-Ortíz P, Shao C, Shi P, Shironya I, Siebicke L, Šigut L, Silberstein R, Sirca C, Spano D, Steinbrecher R, Stevens RM, Sturtevant C, Suyker A, Tagesson T, Takanashi S, Tang Y, Tapper N, Thom J, Tomassucci M, Tuovinen JP, Urbanski S, Valentini R, van der Molen M, van Gorsel E, van Huissteden K, Varlagin A, Verfaillie J, Vesala T, Vincke C, Vitale D, Vygodskaya N, Walker JP, Walter-Shea E, Wang H, Weber R, Westermann S, Wille C, Wofsy S, Wohlfahrt G, Wolf S, Woodgate W, Li Y, Zampedri R, Zhang J, Zhou G, Zona D, Agarwal D, Biraud S, Torn M, Papale D (2020) The FLUXNET2015 dataset and the ONEFlux processing pipeline for eddy covariance data. Scientific Data 7, 225
| The FLUXNET2015 dataset and the ONEFlux processing pipeline for eddy covariance data.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Patric JH, Black PE (1968) Potential evapotranspiration and climate in Alaska by Thornthwaite’s Classification. Research Paper PNW-71. (U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: Juneau, AK, USA)
Pejam MR, Arain MA, McCaughey JH (2006) Energy and water vapour exchanges over a mixedwood boreal forest in Ontario, Canada. Hydrological Processes 20, 3709–3724.
| Energy and water vapour exchanges over a mixedwood boreal forest in Ontario, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ping C-L, Boone RD, Clark MH, Packee EC, Swanson DK (2006) State factor control of soil formation in Interior Alaska. In ‘Alaska’s Changing Boreal Forest’. (Eds FS Chapin, MW Oswood, K van Cleve, LA Viereck, DL Verbyla) pp. 21–38. (Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA)
Priestley CHB, Taylor RJ (1972) On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters. Monthly Weather Review 100, 81–92.
| On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Roberts J (1983) Forest transpiration: A conservative hydrological process? Journal of Hydrology 66, 133–141.
| Forest transpiration: A conservative hydrological process?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saito K, Zhang T, Yang D, Marchenko S, Barry RG, Romanovsky V, Hinzman L (2013) Influence of the physical terrestrial Arctic in the eco-climate system. Ecological Applications 23, 1778–1797.
| Influence of the physical terrestrial Arctic in the eco-climate system.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shan Y, Wang Y, Flannigan M, Tang S, Sun P, Du F (2017) Spatiotemporal variation in forest fire danger from 1996 to 2010 in Jilin Province, China. Journal of Forestry Research 28, 983–996.
| Spatiotemporal variation in forest fire danger from 1996 to 2010 in Jilin Province, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sharratt BS (1997) Thermal Conductivity and Water Retention of A Black Spruce Forest Floor. Soil Science 162, 576–582.
| Thermal Conductivity and Water Retention of A Black Spruce Forest Floor.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shuttleworth WJ (1993) Chapter 4. Evaporation. In ‘Handbook of Hydrology’. (Ed. DR Maidment) pp. 4.1–4.53. (McGraw-Hill Inc.: New York, NY, USA)
Shuttleworth WJ (2007) Putting the “vap” into evaporation. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 11, 210–244.
| Putting the “vap” into evaporation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simard AJ, Main WA (1982) Comparing methods of predicting Jack pine slash moisture. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 12, 793–802.
| Comparing methods of predicting Jack pine slash moisture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Skre O, Oechel WC, Miller PM (1983) Moss leaf water content and solar radiation at the moss surface in a mature black spruce forest in central Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 13, 860–868.
| Moss leaf water content and solar radiation at the moss surface in a mature black spruce forest in central Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stocks BJ, Lawson BD, Alexander ME, Van Wagner CE, McAlpine RS, Lynham TJ, Dube DE (1989) The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System: an overview. The Forestry Chronicle 65, 450–457.
| The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System: an overview.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stoy PC, Street LE, Johnson AV, Prieto-Blanco A, Ewing SA (2012) Temperature, heat flux, and reflectance of common subarctic mosses and lichens under field conditions: might changes to community composition impact climate-relevant surface fluxes? Arctic, Antarctic & Alpine Research 44, 500–508.
| Temperature, heat flux, and reflectance of common subarctic mosses and lichens under field conditions: might changes to community composition impact climate-relevant surface fluxes?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sullivan PF, Sveinbjörnsson B (2011) Environmental controls on needle gas exchange and growth of white spruce (Picea glauca) on a riverside terrace near the Arctic treeline. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 43, 279–288.
| Environmental controls on needle gas exchange and growth of white spruce (Picea glauca) on a riverside terrace near the Arctic treeline.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Taylor SW, Alexander ME (2006) Science, technology, and human factors in fire danger rating: the Canadian experience. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 121–135.
| Science, technology, and human factors in fire danger rating: the Canadian experience.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Terrier A, de Groot WJ, Girardin MP, Bergeron Y (2014) Dynamics of moisture content in spruce–feather moss and spruce–Sphagnum organic layers during an extreme fire season and implications for future depths of burn in Clay Belt black spruce forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, 490–502.
| Dynamics of moisture content in spruce–feather moss and spruce–Sphagnum organic layers during an extreme fire season and implications for future depths of burn in Clay Belt black spruce forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thompson DK, Schroeder D, Wilkinson SL, Barber Q, Baxter G, Cameron H, Hsieh R, Marshall G, Moore B, Refai R, Rodell C, Schiks T, Verkaik GJ, Zerb J (2020) Recent crown thinning in a boreal black spruce forest does not reduce spread rate nor total fuel consumption: results from an experimental crown fire in Alberta, Canada. Fire 3, 28
| Recent crown thinning in a boreal black spruce forest does not reduce spread rate nor total fuel consumption: results from an experimental crown fire in Alberta, Canada.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thornthwaite CW (1948) An approach toward a Rational Classification of Climate. Geographical Review 38, 55–94.
| An approach toward a Rational Classification of Climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thornthwaite CW, Mather JR (1955) ‘The Water Balance.’ (Drexel Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Climatology: PA, USA)
Thornthwaite CW, Mather JR (1957) ‘Instructions and Tables for Computing Potential Evapotranspiration and the Water Balance.’ (Drexel Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Climatology: PA, USA)
Trigg WM (1971) Fire season climatic zones of mainland Alaska. Research Paper PNW-RP-126. (U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: Portland, OR, USA) Available at https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/25487
Turner JA (1966) ‘The stored moisture index: a guide to slash burning.’ (British Columbia Forest Service, Protection Division)
Turner JA (1972) The Drought Code component of the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior System. Publication No. 1316. (Environment Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, Headquarters: Ottawa, Canada) Available at http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=28538
Ueyama M, Tahara N, Iwata H, Euskirchen ES, Ikawa H, Kobayashi H, Nagano H, Nakai T, Harazono Y (2016) Optimization of a biochemical model with eddy covariance measurements in black spruce forests of Alaska for estimating CO2 fertilization effects. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 222, 98–111.
| Optimization of a biochemical model with eddy covariance measurements in black spruce forests of Alaska for estimating CO2 fertilization effects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wagner CE (1970) An index to estimate the current moisture content of the forest floor. Publication No. 1288. (Canadian Forest Service: Ottawa, ON, Canada)
Van Wagner CE (1974) Structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index. Departmental Publication 1333. (Canadian Forestry Service, Petawawa Forest Experiment Station: Chalk River, ON, Canada)
Van Wagner CE (1979) A laboratory study of weather effects on the drying rate of jack pine litter. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 9, 267–275.
| A laboratory study of weather effects on the drying rate of jack pine litter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Van Wagner CE (1985) Drought, timelag, and fire danger rating. In ‘Eighth Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology’, Detroit, MI, USA. pp. 178–185. (Society of American Foresters: Detroit, MI, USA)
Van Wagner CE (1987) Development and structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System. Forestry Technical Report 35. (Canadian Forestry Service: Ottawa, ON, Canada)
Van Wagner CE, Pickett TL (1985) Equations and FORTRAN program for the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System. Forestry Technical Report 33. (Canadian Forest Service: Ottawa, ON, Canada) Available at https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=19973
Varela V, Vlachogiannis D, Sfetsos A, Karozis S, Politi N, Giroud F (2019) Projection of forest fire danger due to climate change in the French Mediterranean Region. Sustainability 11, 4284
| Projection of forest fire danger due to climate change in the French Mediterranean Region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Venalainen A, Heikinheimo M (2003) The Finnish Forest Fire Index Calculation System. In ‘Early Warning Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction’. (Eds J Zschau, A Kuppers) pp. 645–647. (Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg)
| Crossref |
Waddington JM, Thompson DK, Wotton M, Quinton WL, Flannigan MD, Benscoter BW, Baisley SA, Turetsky MR (2012) Examining the utility of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System in boreal peatlands. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, 47–58.
| Examining the utility of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System in boreal peatlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Warren RK, Pappas C, Helbig M, Chasmer LE, Berg AA, Baltzer JL, Quinton WL, Sonnentag O (2018) Minor contribution of overstorey transpiration to landscape evapotranspiration in boreal permafrost peatlands. Ecohydrology 11, e1975
| Minor contribution of overstorey transpiration to landscape evapotranspiration in boreal permafrost peatlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wotton BM (2008) Interpreting and using outputs from the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System in research applications. Environmental and Ecological Statistics 16, 107–131.
| Interpreting and using outputs from the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System in research applications.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Xiao J, Zhuang Q (2007) Drought effects on large fire activity in Canadian and Alaskan forests. Environmental Research Letters 2, 044003
| Drought effects on large fire activity in Canadian and Alaskan forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Xu CY, Singh VP (2001) Evaluation and generalization of temperature-based methods for calculating evaporation. Hydrological Processes 15, 305–319.
| Evaluation and generalization of temperature-based methods for calculating evaporation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yang Y, Uddstrom M, Pearce G, Revell M (2015) Reformulation of the Drought Code in the Canadian Fire Weather Index System implemented in New Zealand. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 54, 1523–1537.
| Reformulation of the Drought Code in the Canadian Fire Weather Index System implemented in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Young-Robertson JM, Bolton WR, Bhatt US, Cristóbal J, Thoman R (2016) Deciduous trees are a large and overlooked sink for snowmelt water in the boreal forest. Scientific Reports 6, 29504
| Deciduous trees are a large and overlooked sink for snowmelt water in the boreal forest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ziel R (2019) Alaska’s fire environment: not an average place. Wildfire 28, 20–29.
Ziel RH, Bieniek PA, Bhatt US, Strader H, Rupp TS, York A (2020) A comparison of fire weather indices with MODIS fire days for the natural regions of Alaska. Forests 11, 516
| A comparison of fire weather indices with MODIS fire days for the natural regions of Alaska.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
